l&ural  Science 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


THE    HORSE 


THE    HORSE 


BY 

ISAAC    PHILLIPS    ROBERTS 

Emeritus  Professor  of  Agriculture,  Late  Dean  and  Director  of  the  College  of. 

Agriculture  of  Cornell  University;    author  of   'Fertility  of  the  Land," 

"The   Farmstead,"  "The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook." 


SECOND   EDITION 


gotfe 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDONt    MACMILLAN  &  CO     LTI>. 

1906 

All  riyhts  reserved 


(s 


COPYRIGHT,  1905 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Set  up  and  eleetrotyped  March,  1905 
Reprinted  June,  1906 


Mount 

J.  HORACE  MCFARLAND  COMPANY 
HARRISBURG,  PA. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

THE  HORSE  AND  His  MASTER 1-20 

CHAPTER   II 

BRIEF  HISTORY  OP  THE  DOMESTICATED  HORSE 21-32 

Introduction  of  Improved  Horses  into  England     ....      26 
The  Horse  in  France 31 

CHAPTER    III 
HORSES  OF  AMERICA 33-48 

CHAPTER   IV 

BREEDS,      SUBBREEDS,      FAMILIES,     VARIETIES,     CROSS  • 

BREEDS  AND  GRADES    .  .    . 49-60 

CHAPTER   V 

THE  THOROUGHBRED;  THE  TROTTER;  THE  PACER 61-85 

The  Trotting  Horse 70 

The  Pacing  Horse 78 

CHAPTER   VI 
THE  AMERICAN  SADDLER 86-94 

CHAPTER    VII 

THE  COACH-HORSE 95-109 

The  Trotter  as  a  Sire  of  Coachers      .    . 103 

The  French  Coach 105 

CHAPTER   VIII 
THE  HACKNEY  , 110-114 

(v) 


Vi  CONTEXTS 

CHAPTER   IX  PAGES 

THE  HUNTER .   .   .    .  115-121 

Breeding- Hunters  and  Saddle-Horses ,    „   .    116 

CHAPTER   X 

PONIES 122-138 

The  Shetland  Pony 125 

The  Welsh  Pony 130 

Exmoor,  Dartmoor  and  New  Forest  Ponies 130 

Mustangs 133 

The  Indian  Pony    .   .   .    « 135 

Creoles 135 

The  Polo  Pony 137 

CHAPTER    XI 

DRAFT-HORSES  —  CLYDESDALE,   ENGLISH   SHIRE,  SUFFOLK 

PUNCH 139-155 

English  Shire .    .    .     147 

Suffolk  Punch 152 

CHAPTER    XII 

FRENCH,  BELGIAN  AND  FLEMISH  DRAFT-HORSES 156-173 

French  Draft 167 

Boulonnais 168 

Belgian  Draft-Horse .168 

The  Flemish  Horse 171 

CHAPTER    XIII 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING t    .   .    .   .  174-201 

Food 187 

Climate .  189 

Habit  and  Use 192 

Selection ...  193 

Relative  Influence  of  Sire  and  Dam  .   .    , 197 

The  Governing  of  Sex     .    .    .    , 198 

Atuvism                                                          201 


CONTENTS  Vil 

CHAPTER  XIV  PA6ES 

PLAN  OP  BREEDING     202-231 

Fall  vs.  Spring  Colts .    .   .    .    210 

Plan  for  Rearing  Winter  Colts 211 

Feeding  the  Brood-Mare  and  Foal 214 

Period  of  Gestation  and  Parturition 219 

Suggestions  for  the  Beginner 222 

CHAPTER    XV 
JUDGING  HORSES ,   .  .  232-266 

CHAPTER   XVI 
BREEDING  HORSES 267-274 

CHAPTER   XVII 

EDUCATION  AND  CARE  OF  ROADSTERS  AND  OTHER  LIGHT 

HORSES 275-296 

Education 275 

Feeding '   ' 281 

Foods     .  '. 282 

Harness 284 

Driving  . 287 

Watering 290 

Grooming      292 

CHAPTER   XVIII 
"HANDS"  IN  DRIVING 297-302 

CHAPTER    XIX 

CARE  OF  DRAFT-HORSES  AND  FARM-HORSES  .   .    .   .   .    .  .  303-315 

Watering 308 

Blankets 312 

Size  and  Weight  of  Horses .    . 313 

Driving-,  Farm-  and  Draft-Horses 314 


Vlli  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XX 

PAGES 

THE  HORSE'S  FEET  —  SHOEING 316-332 

Shoeing,  to  Improve  Action .   .    330 

CHAPTER   XXI 

STABLES,  SANITATION  AND  PADDOCKS 333-346 

Ventilation 336 

Manures 340 

Floors,  Stalls  and  Mangers 342 

Paddocks 346 

CHAPTER  XXII 
LINE  OF  DRAFT,  WEIGHT  OF  HORSES  AND  WAGON  TIRES  .  347-353 

APPENDIX   I 

THE  BREEDING  IN  CANADA  OF  HORSES  FOR  ARMY  USE  .  .  354-359 

APPENDIX   II 
COMPUTING  RATIONS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 360-382 

APPENDIX  III 

LIVE -STOCK  REGISTRY  ASSOCIATIONS,   WITH  THE   NAMES 

OF  THE  SECRETARIES  OR  EDITORS 383-389 

APPENDIX    IV 

NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  HORSES    .  .  390-394 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Plowing o 9 

Harvesting    . .  11 

The  improved  mustang .    .    .   .    .  38 

A  saddler  at  rest ...*.. 45 

A  superior  pedigree 53 

Alphea  Czar.     Pedigree  ..................  55 

Genealogy  of  Moses .   .    * 57 

A  thoroughbred  .    .   . .    . 67 

Lou  Dillon 72 

Cresceus    .   . 75 

Prince  Alert .  81 

Dan  Patch 83 

Montgomery  Chief .    .    .    .  92 

A  good  coacher  ......    101 

Paladin,  French  coach 106 

Imported  German  coacher .  108 

Imported  Cadet,  hackney •.    .    .    .  Ill 

Champion  hackney  stallion 113 

Heavy-weight  hunter 117 

Ontario „.,...  120 

A  disgusted  pony  .    .    . 123 

A  pair  of  trick  ponies . 124 

Exile  of  Pittsford  ..........,.*.. 126 

Bressay  of  Pittsford ,    .    .    .   „ 127 

Champion  Welsh  pony  mare 129 

Movement.     Welsh  pony  gelding     .    .    .    .    „ 131 

Julius  Caesar    ..,...„ .  132 

Gaited  broncho 134 

Lord  Stewart,  Clydesdale 140 

A  quartette  of  Clydesdale  colts 142 

Brothwick.     Clydesdale  stallion 144 

(ix) 


X  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGB 

Clydesdale  m:ire , 146 

Suire  stallion 148 

Traitor.     Shire  stallion 150 

Tatton  Bessie.     Shire  filly 151 

Suffolk  Punch  stallion 152 

Suffolk  Punch  mare     154 

Success.     Percheron 157 

Calypso.     Percheron  stallion      160 

Paquerette.     Percheron  mare 163 

Deguardi.     Percheron  stallion 164 

Picador.     Percheron  stallion 166 

Brilliant  Du  Basquet.     Belgian  stallion 169 

Colonel  De  Dompiere.     Belgian  stallion 170 

German  draft-horse 172 

A  brood-mare ,    .    .    .   , 205 

A  filly 207 

A  draft  colt 209 

Cow-hocked  legs 238 

A  pointer 238 

Reversion  to  original  type     239 

A  head  showing  bad  breeding 240 

Ears  badly  set .   .  240 

Goldsmith  Maid 241 

Photograph  of  a  poor  neck 242 

An  all-embracing  neck 243 

Teeth  of  young  colt 247 

Teeth  at  four  to  six  weeks  of  age  .    . 248 

Teeth  at  ten  months 249 

A  milk  tooth 249 

Lower  nippers  at  two  years  old 250 

Lower  nippers  at  three  years  old 251 

Lower  nippers  at  four  years  old 252 

Side  view  of  nippers  at  four 253 

Lower  nippers  at  five  years 254 

Side  view  of  teeth  at  five 255 

Lower  nippers  at  six  years  of  age      256 

Side  view  at  six  years  of  age 256 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XI 

PAGE 

Lower  nippers  of  a  seven -year-old  horse 257 

Side  view  of  the  nippers  of  a  seven-year-old 258 

Lower  nippers  of  an  eight-year-old  horse „   .  259 

Cross-section  of  an  incisor  tooth =, 260 

Side  view  of  incisor  teeth  at  eight  years  old 261 

Lower  incisor  teeth  of  an  old  horse 263 

Side  view  of  teeth  of  a  very  old  horse 264 

Six  views  showing  the  wear  of  teeth 265 

Receiving  their  first  lesson 277 

Ready  for  the  second  lesson 278 

The  work  half  done 279 

Brains  versus  brute  force 280 

A  rein  cruelly  used 286 

Wonderful  muscles  displayed  by  a  playful  horse 315 

Foot  of  a  draft-horse 327 

Front  view  of  feet 328 

Foot  of  a  roadster 329 

Gypsy  Queen,  a  good  saddler 332 

A  swing-window 334 

An  ideal  arrangement  of  stable 336 

A  straw  chute  and  ventilator 337 

Better  ways  of  saving  manure 341 

A  barn  floor 343 

Energy  efficiently  applied 347 

Low  line  of  draft 348 

High  line  of  draft 349 

A  hansom-cab 353 


THE  HORSE 


CHAPTER   I 

THE   HORSE   AND   HIS   MASTER 

THE  American  inherits  from  his  European,  and 
especially  his  English  ancestor,  a  sincere  love  for  the 
horse.  This  love  has  amounted  to  adoration  in  some 
cases.  The  family  horse,  if  he  outlived  his  master, 
inherited  under  the  will  a  sufficient  amount  for  lux- 
urious support  during  life  and  a  costly  interment  and 
monument  at  death,  the  same  as  the  children.  Although 
oxen  were  used  by  the  pioneers  for  the  most  laborious 
work,  fine  horses  were  imported  and  bred  in  consider- 
able numbers  in  the  United  States  before  1776.  Mary- 
laud,  Virginia  and  South  Carolina  had  established  race- 
courses prior  to  that  time.  As  the  forests  disappeared 
before  the  woodman's  axe  and  the  stumps  slowly 
decayed,  horses  were  gradually  substituted  for  oxen 
as  ''work  stock."  As  soon  as  settlements  were  made 
in  the  interior  of  the  New  England  and  middle  states 
away  from  the  natural  water -courses,  vast  amounts  of 
goods  had  to  be  "wagoned"  from  towns  along  the 
water-courses  to  the  inland  settlements.  The  rapid 
settlement  of  the  middle  states  created  a  large  demand 

(1) 


2  THE    HORSE 

for  stout,  serviceable  horses,  and  this  demand  stimulated 
the  importation  of  well-bred  horses  and  the  breeding 
of  what  has  been  erroneously  called  in  modern  days 
"a  general -purpose  horse." 

The  work -horses  of  America  fall  naturally  into  four 
general  groups,  each  group  overlapping  the  other. 
Although  there  are  many  subgroups,  all  of  these  are 
only  connecting  links  between  the  four  great  groups 
and  fall  naturally  into  one,  or  sometimes,  into  two  of 
them. 

(1)  Heavy  draft -horses,  designed    and  adapted  for 
moving  heavy  loads  in  cities  and  forests  and  at  mines. 

(2)  Medium  draft,  usually  a  mixture  of  the  blood 
of    the    smaller    individuals    of    the    heavy    draft    and 
that  of   the  larger  animals  of   the  third  group;   some- 
times   the    blood    of    the    light     draft    predominates; 
sometimes  that  of  the  lighter  and  quicker  horse  which 
traces  back  in  some  lines  to  oriental  or  "warm-blooded" 
ancestors.     In    many   cases,    the   sires    are    largely   of 
oriental  descent  and  the  dams  of  mixed  draft  type  or 
of   unknown  blood.     This  group  is  quite  variable,  as 
might    be    expected    from    the    indiscrimiaate    mixing 
of  the  warm-  (oriental)  and  cold-  (draft)  blooded  breeds. 
Perhaps   nine -tenths   of   the   farm -horses    of   America 
belong  to  this  nondescript  class.     It  furnishes  nearly 
all  of  the  cavalry-  and  artillery -horses  for  the  army. 
Since  the  best  specimens  of  this  group,   produced  by 
individual  enterprise,  furnish  ample  material  from  which 
to   select,   no  attempt   has   been  made   by  the  United 
States   government,   as    in    Europe,    to   encourage    the 
breeding  of   horses  suited  to  these  purposes.     Horses 


THE  FOUR  GROUPS  OF  HORSES          3 

of  this  group  are  also  found  in  considerable  numbers 
in  the  city.  They  are  used  at  light  draft,  delivery  and 
street -car  work,  and  at  any  other  light  work  where  a 
cheap  horse,  having  more  speed  than  the  draft -horse 
and  more  weight  than  the  roadster,  can  be  used  to 
advantage. 

(3)  The  third  group  is  designed  for  drawing  light 
loads  at  a  rapid  pace.     In  America  the  term  "roadster" 
has  come  to  be  applied  in  a  generic  way  to  all  of  this 
class,  although  some  members  of  it  are  used  exclusively 
in  competitive  speed  contests. 

(4)  The  fourth  class  comprises  several  breeds  and 
mixed  -  blood    varieties    of     small     horses    known     as 
"ponies."    Some   trace   their  ancestry  to   the   north   of 
Great   Britain;   others,   first    to    southern  and   western 
United  States  and  thence  back  to  Spain. 

The  American,  having  all  of  these  varied  classes, 
groups  and  subgroups  from  which  to.  select,  and 
having  opportunity  to  put  the  horse  to  many  uses,  both 
profitable  and  pleasurable;  living  in  a  country  of 
magnificent  distances,  traveling  over  roads  that  were 
once  bridle-paths  and  that  are  yet  far  from  good; 
having  easy  and  constant  communication  with  Great 
Britain,  and  therefore  many  improved  varieties  of  horses 
to  draw  upon  for  foundation  stock,  has  an  inevitable 
and  an  inherited  love  for  the  horse.  It  is  no  wonder, 
then,  that  the  American  boy  has  always  felt  that  he 
was  robbed  of  his  inalienable  rights  unless  he  owned  a 
colt  which  was  under  his  personal  care  and  tutelage 
and  which  was  "truly"  his  when  it  had  grown  to 
be  a  horse. 


4  THE    HORSE 

Hay  and  grain  have  always  been  so  abundant  in 
America  that  every  farmer  could  afford  to  keep  at  least 
one  horse,  however  small  his  holding.  The  business  of 
all  except  the  older  great  cities  is  still  largely  carried 
on  by  men  who  were  reared  on  the  farm  and  who  love 
the  horse.  This  fact,  coupled  with  cheap  maintenance 
and  abundant  traffic,  has  filled  the  cities  as  well  as 
the  country  districts  with  horses.  Unfortunately,  until 
the  twelfth  Census  was  taken,  we  have  had  no  means 
of  knowing  the  exact  number. 

When  the  pioneers  reached  the  vast  open  grass- 
covered  plains  of  the  west  and  southwest,  they  might 
have  expressed  their  surprise  and  wonder  in  the  words 
of  Byron: 

"A  thousand  horse,  the  wild,  the  free, 

Like  waves  that  follow  o'er  the  sea. 
A  thousand  horse,  and  none  to  ride ; 

O!  where  are  they  the  reins  to  guide?" 

They  did  not  stop  to  quote  "Mazeppa,"  however,  but 
proceeded  to  catch  and  tame  the  horse  and  to  furnish 
him  with  a  rider,  who  learned  to  keep  a  firm  seat  even 
though  the  horse  frequently  stood  alternately  on  one 
end  and  then  on  the  other.  Thus  American  boys  and 
men  have  become  expert  horsemen  by  reason  of  unique 
conditions  not  found  in  countries  long  settled.  The 
word  "expert"  is  not  full  and  comprehensive  enough, 
for  they  love  to  own,  rear,  educate  and  drive  the  horse. 
The  American  is  usually  a  kind,  good  caretaker,  supply- 
ing the  wants  of  his  horse  before  his  own  are  satisfied. 
Like  the  Arab,  of  all  his  possessions,  he  is  proudest  of 
his  colt;  and  so  the  large  number  of  good  horses  in 


EARLY  INTEREST  IN  HORSES  O 

our  new,  and,  as  yet,  only  partly  developed  country  can 
be  easily  accounted  for. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  both  urban  and  suburban,  have  always 
taken  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  horse.  They  have 
not  only  taken  pains  to  improve  the  animals  of  mixed 
blood  by  selection  and  by  improving  their  food  and 
environment,  but,  even  as  early  as  the  colonial  period, 
horses  of  superior  qualities,  horses  of  oriental  lineage 
and  of  great  beauty,  were  imported  at  large  cost.  After 
the  Revolution,  as  soon  as  the  country  began  to  recover 
from  its  long  struggle  for  independence,  the  importa- 
tion of  horses  was  resumed. 

The  true  draft -horse  attracted  comparatively  little 
attention  in  America  until  permanent  settlements  had 
spread  over  the  middle  west.  When  the  railways  reached 
the  western  prairies,  these  vast  fertile  areas  became 
valuable,  since  rapid  and  cheap  communication  with  the 
east  furnished  facilities  for  reaching  a  steady  and  profit- 
able market  along  these  railways.  Cities  were  soon 
built  where,  but  a  few  years  before,  the  bison  roamed 
undisturbed  except  by  his  compeer,  the  American 
Indian.  The  opening  of  the  prairies  to  the  peaceful 
pursuits  of  agriculture,  and  the  growing  cities,  created 
a  demand  for  larger  numbers  of  heavier  horses  than 
had  hitherto  been  required.  It  will  readily  be  seen  how 
necessary  the  horse  has  been  to  the  development  of 
American  agriculture,  when  it  is  stated  that  in  1890 
the  total  number  of  horses  on  farms  and  ranges,  not 
including  7,461  on  Indian  reservations  and  2,314,785 
mules  and  asses  which  take  the  place  of  horses  as 


6  THE    HORSE 

work  stock  in  the  southern  states,  was  15,258,783. 
The  population  of  the  country,  exclusive  of  Alaska  and 
Island  possessions,  was  62,622,250.  This  shows  that 
there  were  approximately  twenty-five  horses,  not  count- 
ing those  in  cities,  for  every  one  hundred  inhabitants  of 
the  entire  country.  If  the  mules  and  asses,  and  horses 
on  Indian  reservations  be  included,  there  would  be 
twenty-eight  of  these  wore  animals  for  every  one  hun- 
dred inhabitants.  The  horses  kept  in  the  cities  have 
never  been  enumerated  in  the  Census  until  1900;  if  they 
had  been,  the  total  showing  above  would  be  largely  in- 
creased. If  the  people,  as  well  as  the  horses  of  the  cities, 
be  excluded  from  the  computation,  it  is  seen  that,  in 
1900,  for  every  three  persons  living  on  farms  at  least  one 
horse  was  maintained.  These  facts  emphasize  as  nothing 
else  can  the  usefulness  of  the  horse  in  rural  pursuits  and 
the  great  love  of  the  Americans  for  one  of  the  most 
useful,  charming  and  pleasure -giving  domestic  animals. 
The  horses  of  Great  Britain  numbered,  in  1899, 
1,517,160.  The  population,  the  same  year,  was  40,559,- 
954.  This  shows  that  but  one  horse  was  maintained 
for  every  twenty -six,  or  four  horses  for  every  one 
hundred  inhabitants.  However,  the  horses  in  the  cities, 
as  well  as  the  city  population,  are  included  in  these 
computations  and  therefore  are  not  strictly  comparable 
witih  those  of  thej  United  States.  It  is  estimated  by 
good  authority  that  in  1900,  in  the  city  of  London, 
with  a  population  of  4,504,766,  there  are  600, OOty  horses 
in  daily  use.  It  is  evident  that  neither  steam  nor  elec- 
tricity is  likely  entirely  to  supplant  the  horse,  either 
in  city  or  country,  in  the  near  future. 


STATISTICS   IN    VARIOUS    COUNTRIES  7 

In  1892,  the  population  of  France  was  38,333,000. 
The  number  and  classification  of  horses  for  the  same 
year  was  as  follows: 

Horses  Employed  in  Agriculture — 

Geldings  and  stallions 1,080,000 

Mares 1,019,000 

Stallions  for  breeding 8,886 

Mares  for  breeding 178,237 

Colts,  one  to  three  years  old    ....  328,099 

Colts,  less  than  one  year 248,051 

—   2,862,273 

Horses  Employed  in  Cities — 

Paris 90,127 

In  other  cities  about 660,000 

750,127 

Army  horses  .    .    . 143,000 

Government  studs  —  stallions.    .    .    .  2,700 

145,700 


Total 3,758,100 

This  gives  one  horse  for  every  ten,  or  ten  to  every 
one  hundred  inhabitants.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that 
the  exact  number  of  horses  maintained  in  cities  cannot 
be  secured  but  the  estimate  given  above  is  believed 
to  be  very  nearly  correct. 

The  population  of  the  German  empire,  in  1895,  was 
52,279,901;  the  number  of  horses  (understood  to  in- 
clude those  in  the  cities)  was  4,038,485,  or  one  horse 
for  thirteen,  or  seven  and  seven -tenths  horses  to  every 
one  hundred  inhabitants. 

These  three  great  European  countries1  had  a  popula- 
tion, at  the  dates  mentioned,  of  131,172,855  and  9,313,- 
745  horses,  or  one  horse  to  every  fourteen  inhabitants; 

1  The  figures  for  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France  and  Holland  were 
secured  through  the  kindness  of  the  American  Consuls. 


8  THE    HORSE 

while  the  United  States,  in  1890,  had  a  population  of 
62,622,250  and  the  number  of  horses  on  the  farms  for 
the  same  year  was  15,258,783;  or,  roundly,  one  horse 
for  every  four  inhabitants.  The  rural  population  at  that 
time,  including  those  who  lived  in  the  outskirts  of  the 
villages  and  cities  and  who  kept  horses  in  part  for 
pleasure,  as  well  as  for  cultivating  land,  was  estimated 
at  one -half  of  the  total  population.  If  this  estimate, 
which  is  believed  to  be  nearer  correct  than  the  former 
one,  is  taken  as  a  basis  for  computation,  it  appears 
that  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  United  States  there 
are  half  as  many  horses  as  inhabitants,  or  one  horse 
for  every  two  inhabitants;  while  in  The  Netherlands 
with  its  many  canals,  in  1897,  but  one  horse  was  main- 
tained for  every  eighteen  inhabitants.  Fortunately, 
the  horses  in  the  cities  have  been  enumerated  in  the 
Census  of  1900.  The  total  number  in  the  United 
States  is  21,216,888;  866,771  of  which'  are  in  cities 
of  over  25,000  inhabitants,  18,280,007  on  farms  and 
ranges,  and  2,070,110  not  on  farms  or  ranges.  The  total 
population  in  1900  was  76,303,387,  and  indicates  that 
one  horse  was  maintained  for  every  3.6  inhabitants. 

It  is  evident  that  in  America  the  farmers  have 
learned  to  substitute  brute  for  human  energy.  Agricul- 
tural teachers  and  inventors  have  taught  the  farmer 
that  human  muscle,  in  the  United  States  at  least,  is 
the  dearest  material  from  which  to  secure  energy.  The 
value  of  a  day's  labor  for  a  horse  may  be  put  down 
at  fifty  cents,  that  of  a  man  at  one  dollar.  A  horse 
properly  directed  is  equal  in  productive  energy  to  ten 
men.  Just  here  lies  the  secret  of  American  agriculture. 


HORSE  LABOR  VERSUS  SUM  AN  LABOR      9 

A  horse,  intelligently  handled,  may  be  made  to  cheapen 
farm  operations  twenty  fold  over  the  old  hand  methods. 
Human  muscle,  however  cheap,  can  never  successfully 
compete  in  agriculture  with  improved  implements, 


FlG.  1.    Plowing:    Conservation  of  Yiuman  energy  and  concentration  of 
cheap  energy 

operated  by  well  bred -horses  adapted  to  their  work 
and  directed  by  intelligent  workmen.  The  American 
farmer  is  not  usually  content  to  direct  the  energies 
of  but  one  horse  at  a  time.  He  harnesses  two,  three, 
four,  and  even  six,  to  a  single  implement  of  tillage.  In 


10  THE   HORSE 

the  great  wheat  districts  of  the  northwest,  where  the 
fields  are  often  a  mile  long  and  where  two  plows  are 
mounted  on  wheels  and  drawn  by  five  horses  (Fig.  1), 
and  where  ten  rounds,  or  twenty  miles,  that  is,  forty 
miles  of  a  single  furrow,  sixteen  inches  wide,  is  plowed 
in  a  day,  a  single  workman  accomplishes,  in  the  pul- 
verization and  preparation  of  the  six  and  a  half  acres, 
more  than  a  hundred  hand  laborers  could  do  in  a 
day  of  the  severest  toil.  Or  a  still  more  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  economy  of  horse  over  man  power  may 
be  given.  In  many  of  the  great  wheat -fields  of  Cali- 
fornia, from  twenty-two  to  thirty-two  horses  are 
attached  to  a  combined  machine  (Fig.  2)  which  cuts, 
threshes,  cleans  and  sacks  from  one  thousand  to  two 
thousand  bushels  of  wheat  per  day.  One  man  drives 
the  horses  and  two  or  three  others  tend  the  machine 
and  sew  up  the  sacks  of  grain,  the  four  spending  less 
muscular  energy  than  was  formerly  required  merely  to 
cut  by  hand  a  single  acre. 

Nearly  as  great  economy  of  human  muscle  is  seen 
in  the  large  cities,  by  the  substitution  of  horses  for 
men  in  the  transportation  of  heavy  merchandise,  for 
short  distances.  By  reason  of  crowded  streets  and  cost 
of  maintenance,  only  one  or  two  animals  are  usually 
harnessed'to  a  vehicle.  Although  only  a  few  horses  are 
brought  together  in  this  case  to  assist  a  single  man, 
the  American  has  seen  to  it  that  large,  stout  horses 
are  provided,  two  of  which  are  able  to  move  a  load 
of  from  four  to  ten  tons  over  paved  streets, — a  load 
equal  to  that  carried  by  a  freight  car  in  the  early  days 
of  steam  railways. 


12  THE 

III  1890  there  were,  in  round  numbers,  fifteen  million 
horses  and  two  million  mules  on  farms.  At  least  one- 
half  of  them  were  suitable  to  perform  regular  agricul- 
tural labor  and  were  capable  of  doing  work  equal  to 
eighty -five  million  hand  laborers.  What  a  vast  addi- 
tion to  the  productive  power  is  here  secured  by  the 
intelligent  utilization  of  the  horse;  and  what  econ- 
omy in  using  brute  energy,  which  is  only  from  one- 
tenth  to  one -twentieth  as  expensive  as  human  muscular 
energy  ! 

If,  then,  the  horse  is  such  an  economic  factor 
in  American  production  and  progress,  it  behooves  the 
American  farmer  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  history 
of  this  useful  and  pleasure -giving  animal,  that  not 
only  good  horses  may  be  propagated,  but  that  such 
selection  of  breeding  stock  may  be  made  and  such  scien- 
tific coupling,  feeding  and  training  be  practiced  as 
will  secure  not  only  the  best  horses  but,  that  which 
is  of  quite  as  much  importance,  those  which  shall  be 
best  adapted  to  the  work  for  which  they  are  intended. 
It  is  evidently  foolish  to  rear  a  horse  which  will  increase 
a  man's  productive  power  only  five  times,  when  a  more 
intelligent  effort  might  have  produced  one  which  would 
increase  it  ten  times. 

So  far,  the  horse  has  been  spoken  of  as  an  animal 
which  may  be  used  to  replace  and  alleviate  human  toil, 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  human  effort  and  to  give 
pleasure.  But  many  horses  in  the  community  are 
beneficial  in  various  other  ways.  They  have  a  powerful 
influence  in  training  the  hand,  and  in  developing  both 
intellect  and  judgment.  In  ancient  times,  the  ox  and 


THE    SHARPENED    STICK  13 

the  ass  were  used  to  lighten  toil,  but  horses  seldom.  At 
the  present  time,  most  half-civilized  nations  prefer  the 
"senseless"  ox  or  the  stubborn,  thick-skinned  ass  to 
the  intelligent,  spirited  horse,  which  requires  a  high 
degree  of  skill,  and  judgment,  if  his  energy  is  to  be 
directed  along  the  most  economical  and  pleasure -giving 
lines.  The  well-bred  horse  is  nearly  worthless  unless 
there  is  a  trained  mind  to  direct  and  control  him.  In 
traveling  through  foreign  countries,  one  is  minded  of 
the  superior  horsemanship  of  the  American  farm -boy 
over  that  of  the  farmers'  sons  of  civilized  as  well  as 
half -civilized  countries,  boys  of  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies  excepted.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  Ameri 
can  mechanic  has  produced  farm  implements  whereby 
the  horse  can  be  put  to  more  effective  uses.  Due  credit 
should  be  given  to  the  mechanic,  but  the  owners  of 
horses  invented  nearly  all  the  labor-saving  horse  imple- 
ments. When,  by  reason  of  increased  wants  and  the 
complexities  of  advancing  civilized  life,  division  of 
labor  was  forced  upon  us,  the  mechanic  took  such 
implements  as  were  at  hand  and  improved  them. 
J.  Stanton  Gould1  graphically  describes  the  inventor  of 
the  first  plow  in  the  following  words:  "While  working 
the  land  with  his  sharpened  stick,  with  his  mind  intent 
upon  some  mode  of  ameliorating  his  condition,  he 
(the  farmer)  sees  the  bulls  and  cows  grazing  on  the 
hillsides  around  him;  they  are  stronger  than  he,  and 
he  desires  to  subjugate  their  strength  to  his  service. 
Seeing  a  forked  stick  in  his  path,  a  bright  thought 
dawns  upon  his  mind:  he  will  tie  the  long  end  of  a 

i  Utica  Plow  Trial,  1867. 


14  THE    HOUSE 

stick  to  the  horns  of  a  bull,  while  the  short  end  will 
run  into  the  ground  and  stir  it  much  faster  than  he 
could  do  it  with  a  sharpened  stick,  and  with  much  less 
labor  to  himself.  He  tries  the  experiment,  and  cries, 
*  Eureka!'  or  some  barbarous  equivalent  for  that  Greek 
word.  The  germ  of  the  plow  is  at  length  invented!" 

Not  only  was  the  crude  wooden  plow  of  our  ancestors 
invented  by  men  who  had  idle  horses,  which  they  saw 
could  be  far  more  efficient  in  tilling  the  land  than  men, 
but  the  cast  plow  as  well.  In  like  manner,  the  wagon, 
the  sleigh,  the  harrow,  the  corn -harvester,  the  wooden 
hay-rake,  hay-unloaders  and  many  other  similar  imple- 
ments were  devised.  So  it  will  be  seen  that  the  owners 
of  horses  situated  in  a  new,  sparsely  populated  country, 
far  removed  from  machine  and  implement  factories, 
thought  out  many  devices  by  which  the  strength  of  the 
horse  could  be  substituted  for  human  labor.  It  will 
be  seen  along  how  many  lines  the  intellect  has  been 
stimulated  by  this  effort  to  utilize  the  horse.  To  breed, 
rear  and  train  for  various  uses  and  to  direct  the  energy 
of  restless,  courageous  animals,  requires  no  little  intel- 
ligence and  skill.  I  have  yet  to  find  a  successful  horse- 
man who  is  not  above  the  average  intelligence  of  his 
associates  in  the  same  station  of  life. 

In  the  ancient  scripture,  the  Lord,  to  convince  Job 
of  his  ignorance  and  weakness,  used  the  strength, 
courage  and  fierceness  of  the  horse  to  emphasize  the 
argument: — "Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength?  Hast 
thou  clothed  his  neck  with  thunder?  Canst  thou  make 
him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper?  The  glory  of  his  nostrils 
is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth 


FACTORS    IN   INTELLECTUAL    DEVELOPMENT     15 

in  strength.  ...  He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not 
affrighted."  .  .  .  "He  swalloweth  the  ground  with 
fierceness  and  rage." 

By  reason  of  long  domestication,  intelligent  care 
and  training,  the  horse  has  become  more  tractable  and 
intelligent  than  he  was  in  the  time  of  Job.  While 
neither  men  nor  horses  can  inherit  an  education,  they 
may  inherit  what  is  better, — the  power  to  acquire  it 
easily  and  rapidly.  The  colt,  nevertheless,  still  retains 
enough  courage,  strength  and  fierceness  to  furnish 
opportunity  for  the  use  of  the  highest  skill  and  courage 
in  transforming  him  into  the  safe,  well-trained,  efficient 
horse.  The  Honorable  George  Geddes  once  said  that 
the  use  of  improved  farm  implements  had  been  such  a 
potent  factor  in  stimulating  thought  and  in  giving 
dexterity  to  the  hand  of  farm-boys,  that,  if  they  had 
been  of  no  other  economic  benefit,  the  education  secured 
through  their  use  would  be  full  compensation  for 
their  cost. 

The  training  of  the  American  boy  through  the  uni- 
versal presence  of  the  horse  and  the  skill  required  in 
his  use  in  operating  farm  implements  and  in  minister- 
ing to  pleasure  may  not  be  a  full  equivalent  for  the 
cost  and  maintenance  of  horses,  but  it  is  certain  that 
these  have  been  most  potent  factors  in  the  intellectual 
development  and  manual  training  of  the  rural  popula- 
tions. 

"The  horse,  by  nature,  is  far  from  being  an  intel- 
ligent animal.  I  know  this  is  contrary  to  the  general 
conceded  belief  as  to  the  ability  of  horses  to  receive 
education.  I  use  the  word  'education7  in  the  general 


16  THE    HORSE 

sense,  meaning  the  power  to  reason  from  acquired 
knowledge.  The  horse  is  one  of  the  least  responsive 
animals,  so  far  as  mental  training  is  concerned. 
Ordinarily,  a  horse  is  required  to  know  but  little,  and 
this  little  is  drilled  into  him,  and  his  obedience  is  the 
result  of  habit  rather  than  of  intelligent  comprehen- 
sion. 

"For  common  farm  use,  the  training  or  'breaking' 
requires  very  little  time  and  pains.  Once  '  broken '  he 
then  is  ready  to  be  trained.  By  the  most  painstaking 
effort,  long  continued,  he  may  acquire  certain  habits 
which  may  remain  with  him,  and  usually  do,  through 
life,  but  such  habits  are  in  no  way  an  indication  of 
high  intelligence.  The  horse  used  on  a  milk- wagon,  for 
instance,  which  makes  frequent  stops,  for  ever  after 
retains  this  habit.  It  often  requires  weeks  and  months 
to  develop  a  '  trick '  horse. 

"Some  writers  on  the  subject  declare  that  no  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  the  effect  of  sounds  when  educating 
the  horse.  However,  any  sound  which  has  been  long 
used  to  indicate  a  particular  performance,  in  time 
enforces  obedience  to  such  sound  and  establishes  a 
habit,  as,  for  instance,  the  bugle  blast  of  cavalry  or 
the  fire  alarm  of  an  engine-house. 

"The  marvelous  feats  of  some  trained  horses  are 
simply  enforced  habits,  and  are  usually  guided  by  some 
motion  of  the  attendant  rather  than  by  sound.  So 
markedly  is  this  the  case,  that  a  good  horse -trainer 
gives  commands  in  a  single  word,  as  a  command  to 
stop,  to  start,  to  rear  or  to  lie  down.  The  horse  cannot 
learn  to  receive  two  commands  at  the  same  time. 


THE    INTELLIGENCE    OF    THE    MAN  17 

"The  surface  nerves,  rather  than  sound  of  the  human 
voice,  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  training  horses. 
The  slightest  pressure  or  touch  may  be  the  command. 
The  ranch -horse  obeys  a  touch  of  the  rider's  leg  far 
more  certainly  and  quickly  than  he  does  any  vocal 
command.  In  fact,  so  true  is  this,  that  the  expert  horse- 
man seldom  speaks  to  his  animal,  but  restrains  or  cheers 
or  guides  him  simply  by  utilizing  the  surface  nerves 
of  his  body."1 

It  is  the  intelligence  of  the  man,  after  all,  rather 
than  the  intelligence  of  the  horse,  which  determines  use 
and  performance.  The  intelligence  of  the  horse,  what- 
ever it  may  be,  his  response  to  the  driver's  wishes, 
his  courage  and  endurance,  depend  somewhat,  perhaps 
largely,  upon  the  blood  of  his  ancestors — inheritance — 
breed.  However,  characteristics  and  disposition  are 
greatly  modified  by  climatic  conditions.  The  very  air 
he  breathes,  the  temperature  in  which  he  lives,  the  ele- 
vation above  sea -level  and  the  humidity  of  the  climate, 
are  all  important  factors  in  modifying  both  the  physical 
and  mental  peculiarities  not  only  of  breeds  but  of  indi- 
viduals of  a  breed  as  well.  The  Clydesdale  horse  brought 
from  his  native  country  to  the  dry  district  bordering 
on  the  Rocky  mountains  loses  some  of  the  abundant 
long  fetlock  hair — "feather";  and  his  offspring  reared 
in  this  dry  climate  loses  still  more  of  this  peculiar  and 
apparently  useless  appendage.  The  "wind"  of  the  low- 
land horse  and  his  sluggishness  are  improved,  in  time, 
when  he  is  taken  to  mountainous  districts.  The  horses 
of  the  low  coast  districts  of  North  Carolina  and  those 

1  Author  of  this  quotation  not  known. 
B 


18  THE    HORSE 

of  the  mountains  are  much  unlike  in  endurance  and 
temperament.  Both  are  largely  of  the  same  warm  blood 
on  their  sire's  side  and  of  mixed  and  warm-blooded 
dams.  It  might  be  possible  to  place  Clydesdale  horses 
on  the  Shetland  Islands  and  preserve  their  size  and 
general  characteristics  by  providing  suitable  and  abun- 
dant food  and  as  warm  and  comfortable  quarters  as 
are  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Clyde.  However,  it 
would  appear  to  be  wiser  and  more  economical  to  choose 
breeds  of  horses  which  have  already  become  adapted  to 
climate,  use  and  environment,  rather  than  to  change 
food,  environment  and  use  to  suit  the  breed. 

Those  who  have  had  much  experience  with  horses 
are  often  greatly  disappointed  in  them  at  times.  Some- 
times they  appear  to  learn  rapidly,  and  then  again  they 
seem  to  lose  all  their  education  and  become  semi- 
maniacs.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  drive  a  horse 
for  years,  trust  him  implicitly,  assert  that  he  would 
not  run  away  even  if  the  harness  broke  and  the  wagon 
ran  against  him,  and  then  to  find  that  the  horse  has 
suddenly  forgotten  all  his  education  and  will  lose  his 
self-possession  and  run  away  even  if  so  much  as  a 
leaf  flutters  down  before  him.  A  splendid  driving  mare 
which  had  been  used  by  the  family  with  great  pleasure 
for  years,  without  any  provocation  whatever,  on  a  level 
road,  began  kicking  and  did  not  cease  until  she  had 
freed  herself  from  the  carriage  and  had  seriously  and 
permanently  injured  the  two  occupants.  One  old  horse 
which  had  been  used  by  two  generations  of  children  to 
transport  them  to  school  over  a  quiet  road  went  crazy 
(perhaps  this  is  too  strong  a  term),  ran  away  and 


THE    EDUCATION    OF    THE    HORSE  19 

caused  great  damage  because  a  rooster  flapped  his  wings 
and  crowed  beside  the  road. 

Without  denying  the  fact  that  some  horses  have 
shown  great  sense,  have  apparently  learned  to  reason 
and  appear  to  be  always  trustworthy,  yet  it  often 
happens  that  a  horse  trusted  because  of  his  previous 
good  behavior  seems  all  of  a  sudden  to  become  a  fool. 
It  is  wiser,  therefore,  never  to  put  oneself  in  jeopardy 
by  too  implicitly  trusting  in  an  animal  much  stronger 
than  oneself,  and  one  which  too  often  is  lacking  in 
good  sense.  The  pistol  that  is  not  loaded  is  always  the 
one  that  goes  off  and  kills  somebody. 


CHAPTER   II 

BRIEF   HISTORY   OF    THE    DOMESTICATED    HORSE 

WITHOUT  doubt  the  ass,  an  inferior  member  of  the 
equine  family,  was  domesticated  long  before  the  horse. 
It  is  believed  that  the  horse  was  unknown  to  the 
Israelites  until  they  sojourned  in  Egypt,  and  presum- 
ably up  to  that  time  it  had  not  been  domesticated.  It 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  place  of  its  origin. 
It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  horse  is  first  spoken  of  as  a 
domesticated  animal  during  the  famine  in  Egypt,  when 
it  is  stated  that  Joseph  exchanged  corn  for  horses 
about  1712  B.  C.  In  1898  B.  C.,  Abimelech  gave 
many  and  valuable  presents  to  Abraham,  such  as 
oxen,  sheep,  man-servants  and  maid -servants,  she- 
asses  and  he -asses,  but  no  mention  is  made  of  horses, 
md,  as  horses  became  the  most  common  and  valued 
sents  during  the  sixteenth  century  B.  C.,  it  is  be- 
that  the  horse  had  not  yet  been  brought  under 
[ominion  of  man  anterior  to  the  beginning  of 
ighteenth  century  B.  C.  As  soon  as  they  were 
ticated  they  became  common  in  the  most  civil- 
oun tries,  such  as  Media  and  Persia.  Assyria  at 
an  •my  date  employed  large  numbers  of  horses  in 
the  cavalry  division  of  the  army.  Some  were  also 
harnessed  to  war -chariots.  That  branch  of  the  service 
which  required  horses  was  usually  more  effective  than 
the  infantry,  as  compared  with  modern  times. 

(21) 


22  THE    HORSE 

It  is  probable  that  the  horse,  when  first  domesti- 
cated, was  not  used  to  any  great  extent  as  a  burden- 
bearer  or  for  tilling  the  soil.  His  chief  uses  in  ancient 
times  appear  to  have  been  for  display  and  war. 
Horse -racing  early  became  popular.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  uses  to  which  horses  were  largely  put,  it 
appears  that  long  before  the  Christian  era  the  "points" 
of  the  war-horse  had  been  carefully  studied  and  were 
well  understood.  I  quote  Xenophon's  description  of  a 
good  horse  of  his  time,1  with  instructions  to  the  pur- 
chaser. Note  how  carefully  each  point  is  set  forth  and 
how  accurate  the  reasoning  when  applied  to  the 
brave,  broad -breasted  war-horse, 

He  says,  "We  will  write  how  one  may  be  the  least 
deceived  in  the  purchase  of  horses.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  of  the  unbroken  colt  one  must  judge  by 
the  bodily  construction:  since,  if  he  have  never  been 
backed,  he  will  afford  no  very  clear  evidence  of  his 
spirit.  Of  his  body,  then,  we  say  that  it  is  necessary 
to  first  examine  the  feet;  for,  as  in  a  house,  it  mat- 
ters not  how  fine  may  be  the  superstructure,  if  there 
be  no  sufficient  foundations,  so  in  a  war-horse  there 
is  no  utility,  no,  not  if  he  have  all  the  other  points 
perfect,  but  be  badly  footed.  But  in  examining  the 
feet  it  is  befitting  first  to  look  to  the  horny  portion 
of  the  hoofs,  for  those  horses  which  have  the  hoof 
thick  are  far  superior  in  their  feet  to  those  which 
have  it  thin.  Nor  will  it  be  well  if  one  fail,  next, 
to  observe  whether  the  hoofs  be  upright,  both  before 
and  behind,  or  low  and  flat  to  the  ground;  for  high 

1  Xenophon,  born  434  B.  C, 


XENOPHON'S     WAR    HORSE  23 

hoofs  keep  the  frog  at  a  distance  from  the  earth,  while 
the  flat  hoofs  tread  with  equal  pressure  on  the  soft 
and  hard  parts  of  the  foot,  as  is  the  case  with  bandy- 
legged men.  And  Simon  justly  observes  that  well- 
footed  horses  can  be  known  by  the  sound  of  their 
tramp,  for  the  hollow  hoof  rings  like  a  cymbal,  when 
it  strikes  the  solid  earth.  But,  having  begun  from 
below,  let  us  ascend  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 
"It  is  needful,  then,  that  the  parts  above  the  hoofs 
and  below  the  fetlocks — the  pasterns — be  not  too  erect, 
like  those  of  the  goat;  for  legs  of  this  kind,  being  stiff 
and  inflexible,  are  apt  to  jar  the  rider,  and  are  more 
liable  to  inflammation.  The  bones  must  not,  however, 
be  too  low  and  springy,  for  in  that  case  the  fetlocks 
are  liable  to  be  abraded  and  wounded,  if  the  horse 
be  galloped  over  clods  or  stones.  The  bones  of  the 
shanks  should  be  thick,  for  these  are  the  columns  which 
support  the  Tbody;  but  they  should  not  have  the  veins 
and  flesh  thick,  likewise.  For,  if  they  have,  when  the 
horse  shall  be  galloped  in  difficult  ground  they  will 
necessarily  be  filled  with  blood,  and  will  become  vari- 
cose, so  that  the  shanks  will  be  thickened,  and  the 
skin  be  distended  and  relax  from  the  bone;  and,  when 
this  is  the  case,  it  often  follows,  that  the  back  sinew 
gives  way  and  renders  the  horse  lame.  But  if  the 
horse,  when  in  action,  bends  his  knees  flexibly  at  a 
walk,  you  may  judge  that  he  will  have  his  legs  flexible 
when  in  full  career;  for  all  horses,  as  they  increase  in 
years,  increase  in  the  flexibility  of  the  knee.  And 
flexible  goers  are  esteemed  highly,  and  with  justice; 
for  such  horses  are  much  less  liable  to  blunder  or  to 


24  THE    HORSE 

stumble  than  those  which  have  rigid,  unbending  joints. 
But  if  the  arms,  below  the  shoulder  blades,  be  thick 
and  muscular,  they  appear  stronger  and  handsomer,  as 
is  the  case  also  with  a  man.  The  breast  also  should 
be  broad,  as  well  for  beauty  as  for  strength,  and 
because  it  causes  a  handsomer  action  of  the  forelegs, 
which  do  not  then  interfere,  but  are  carried  wide  apart.1 
"And,  again,  the  neck  ought  not  to  be  set  on,  like 
that  of  a  boar,  horizontally  from  the  chest;  but,  like  that 
of  a  game  cock,  should  be  upright  towards  the  crest, 
and  slack  towards  the  flexure;  and  the  head  being  long, 
should  have  a  small  and  narrow  jaw  bone,  so  that  the 
neck  shall  be  in  front  of  the  rider  and  that  the  eye 
shall  look  down  at  what  is  before  the  feet.  A  horse 
thus  made  will  be  the  least  likely  to  run  violently  away, 
even  if  he  be  very  high-spirited,  for  horses  do  net 
attempt  to  run  away  by  bringing  in,  but  by  thrusting 
out,  their  heads  and  necks.  It  is  also  very  necessary 
to  observe  whether  the  mouth  be  fine  or  hard  on  both 
sides,  or  on  one  or  the  other.  For  horses  which  have 
not  both  jaws  equally  sensitive  are  likely  to  be  hard- 
mouthed  on  one  side  or  the  other.  And  it  is  better 
that  a  horse  should  have  prominent  than  hollow  eyes, 
for  such  a  one  will  see  to  a  greater  distance.  And 
widely  open  nostrils  are  far  better  for  respiration  than 
narrow,  and  they  give  the  horse  a  fiercer  aspect;  for 
when  one  stallion  is  enraged  against  another,  or  if  he 
become  angry  while  ridden,  he  expands  his  nostrils  to 
their  full  width.  And  the  loftier  the  crest,  and  the 
smaller  the  ears,  the  more  horse -like  and  handsome  is 

1  Evidently  this  does  not  describe  a  trotter. 


f  UNIVERSE 


DEA     OF    CORRECT    FORM  25 

the  head  rendered;  while  lofty  withers  give  the  rider  a 
surer  seat  and  produce  a  firmer  adhesion  between  the 
body  and  shoulders.  A  double  loin  is  also  softer  to 
sit  upon,  and  pleasanter  to  look  upon,  than  if  it  be 
single;  and  a  deep  side,  rounded  toward  the  belly, 
renders  the  horse  easier  to  sit,  and  stronger,  and  more 
easy  to  be  kept  in  condition;  and  the  shorter  and 
broader  the  loin,  the  more  easily  will  the  horse  raise 
his  fore -quarters,  and  collect  his  hind -quarters  under 
him,  in  going.  These  points,  moreover,  cause  the  belly 
to  appear  the  smaller;  which,  if  it  be  large,  at  once 
injures  the  appearance  of  the  animal  and  renders  him 
weaker,  and  less  manageable.  The  quarters  should  be 
broad  and  fleshly,  in  order  to  correspond  with  the  sides 
and  chest,  and,  should  they  be  entirely  firm  and  solid, 
they  will  be  lighter  in  the  gallop,  and  the  horse  would 
be  the  speedier.  But  if  he  should  have  his  buttocks 
separated  under  the  tail  by  a  broad  line,  he  will  bring 
his  hind  legs  under  him,  with  a  wider  space  between 
them;  and  so  doing  he  will  have  a  prouder  and  stronger 
gait  and  action,  and  will,  in  all  respects,  be  the  better 
on  them.  A  proof  of  which  is  to  be  had  in  men,  who, 
when  they  desire  to  raise  anything  from  the  ground,  at- 
tempt it  by  straddling  their  legs,  not  by  bringing  them 
close  together.  Stallions  should  not  have  the  tetes 
large,  and  this  ought  not  to  be  overlooked  in  foals. 

"To  conclude,  in  regard  to  the  lower  joints,  of  the 
shanks,  namely,  and  the  fetlocks  and  the  hoofs,  behind, 
I  have  the  same  remarks  to  make,  and  no  others,  than 
those  which  I  have  made  above." 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  the  horse  in 


26  THE    HORSE 

England.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  native  horses 
(early  introduced)  were  greatly  benefited  by  crosses  with 
the  cavalry -horses  of  the  Roman  garrisons.  During  the 
Norman  Conquest  heavy  cavalry- horses  were  introduced. 
These  horses  constituted  the  most  rapid  and  efficient 
force  of  the  army.  A  heavy  horse  was  needed  to  carry 
the  great  weight  of  arms  and  armor  in  addition  to  the 
rider.  For  hundreds  of  years  after  the  Conquest  two 
distinct  kinds  of  horses  were  imported,  the  heavy  horse 
of  Flanders  and  the  light  but  more  active  horse  of 
Spain  and  the  Orient. 

The  earliest  suggestion  that  horses  were  used  in 
agriculture  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  piece  of  Bayeux 
tapestry,  where  a  horse  is  represented  as  drawing  a 
harrow.  This,  however,  must  have  been  an  exceptional 
case,  for  we  know  that  oxen  were  used  until  a  com- 
paratively late  time,  and  that  in  Wales  a  law  existed 
forbidding  horses  to  be  used  for  plowing.1 

It  will  not  be  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  give 
here  the  history  of  the  horse  previous  to  his  introduc- 
tion into  England  and  France  for  the  purposes  of 
agriculture  and  road  work,  except  so  far  as  it  may  be 
necessary  to  understand  the  causes  which  have  produced 
the  various  breeds  and  varieties,  and  their  distinctive 
characteristics. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  IMPROVED  HORSES  INTO  ENGLAND 

King  John  ascended  the  throne  in  1199  and  paid 
great  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  farm -horse, 
importing  me  hundred  heavy  stallions  from  Flanders 

i  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  181. 


IMPROVED    HORS-K8    IN   ENGLAND  27 

at  one  time.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  Edward  II  imported  both  mares  and  horses 
of  the  draft  type  and  fifty  horses  of  Spanish  blood. 
Before  his  time,  England  had  enacted  sumptuary  laws 
in  regard  to  horses,  especially  as  to  their  exportation. 
Upon  the  whole,  these  laws  were  beneficial  and  did 
something  toward  improving  the  horse  by  retaining  the 
good  ones  and  by  the  exclusion,  in  part,  for  breeding 
purposes  of  inferior  specimens.  They  were  not  re- 
pealed until  the  sixteenth  century.  They  provided, 
among  other  things,  that  horses  of  a  certain  quality, 
or  valued  at  a  certain  price,  should  not  be  exported. 
At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Henry  VIII  rigidly 
executed  the  laws  which  prohibited  the  exportation  of 
both  stallions  and  mares  that  were  above  a  certain 
value,  which  resulted  in  selling  the  poorer  and  keep- 
ing the  better  animals.  He  also  decreed  that  no  stallion 
under  the  height  of  fifteen  hands  (sixty  inches)  should 
run  at  large  on  the  commons,  and  that  all  foals,  filleys 
or  rnares  that  were  ill-shapen  or  undersized  should  be 
killed.  Thus  for  about  three  hundred  years  intelligent 
effort  was  made  to  improve  the  horses  of  Great  Britain 
by  selection  and  by  the  admixture  of  superior  blood 
of  both  Flemish  and  Spanish  origin. 

In  order  to  satisfy  the  Puritans,  Oliver  Cromwell 
forbade  racing,  which  had  already  become  very  com- 
mon. Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  a  lover  of  fast 
horses  and  purchased  of  Mr.  Place  a  noted  Arabian 
horse  known  as  "White  Turk,"  which  was  said  to  be  the 
most  beautiful  horse  of  eastern  origin  ever  imported 
into  England.  Many  of  the  pedigrees  of  our  present 


28  THE    HORSE 

thoroughbred  horses,  and  even  of  the  trotters,  trace 
directly  in  some  lines  to  the  noted  animals  imported 
before  the  close  of  Cromwell's  reign,  or  to  those  im- 
ported prior  to  1760.  The  names  of  the  most  noted  of 
several  importations  follow  : 

Place's  White  Turk  .......    j  Time     of     Common- 

Morocco  Barb     .........    I      wealth,  1653,  1649- 

Helmsley  Turk  .........   J      1660 

Damascus  Arabia  ........    ] 

Three  Turks  from  Hamburg,  1684  I  Charles  II,  1660-1685 
Royal  Barb  or  Turkish  mares  .    .   J 


«,,T    V  James  II,  1685-1688 

Straddling  Turk     ........    J 

Darley  Arabian  .........    )  _ 

n  ,    ,  (  Queen    Anne,     1702- 

Curwen's  Barb   .........    (1714. 

Carlisle's  Turk  .........    J 

Perhaps  the  most  noted  Arabian  horse  that  was 
ever  imported  into  England  was  Godolphin  Arabian, 
daring  the  reign  of  King  George  II  (1727  to  1760). 
It  is  believed  that  every  fast  running  or  trotting 
horse's  pedigree  reaches  back  in  some  lines  to  one  or 
more  of  the  horses  named  above,  or  to  the  royal  mares. 
In  some  cases  the  pedigree  runs  back  to  more  than 
one  of  these  noted  stallions  and  to  the  royal  mares 
also.  Invariably,  the  pedigree  of  the  running  horse 
traces  back  to  these  noted  ancestors  in  more  lines  than 
does  that  of  the  trotting  horse.  The  pedigree  of  the 
trotting  horse,  if  traced  back  far  enough,  usually  ends, 
on  the  dam's  side,  in  a  "noted  road  mare"  of  unknown 
blood.  It  seems  to  be  the  consensus  of  opinion  that 
horses  bred  true  to  the  thoroughbred  line  cannot  be 


NOTED    IMPORTATIONS  29 

trained  to  trot  as  fast  as  those  which  have  originated 
from  out-crosses  with  animals  not  thoroughbreds,  yet 
with  some  warm  blood  and  built  on  lines  similar  to 
those  of  the  thoroughbred,  so  modified  as  to  better 
adapt  them  to  a  fast  trotting  or  racking  gait. 

Charles  II  (1660-1685)  paid  great  attention  to  the 
turf,  sending  his  Master  of  the  Horse  to  the  Levant1 
to  import  both  mares  and  stallions,  and  it  is  to  these 
imported  mares  that  the  name  of  "Royal  Mares"  has 
been  given. 

The  Spanish  horses  imported  into  England,  it  is 
believed,  were  identical,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  oriental 
blood;  and  the  reason  for  sometimes  importing  Span- 
ish horses  instead  of  those  from  the  Orient,  was  that 
at  this  early  period  (first  quarter  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  King  Edward)  some  of  the  Spanish  horses 
were  more  improved  and  better  than  Arabian  horses. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  some  of  the  running  horses 
of  England  and  the  trotting  horses  of  America  have 
first  an  infusion  of  warm  blood  through  the  Spanish 
horse,  and  later  through  direct  importation  from  Arabia 
and  contiguous  countries. 

1  Levant,  the  east,  the  point  where  the  sun  rises,  especially  the  coun- 
tries of  Turkey,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Egypt,  etc.,  which  are 
washed  by  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  and  its  contiguous 
waters. 

Various  names  are  applied  to  the  horse  which  has  wholly,  or  in  large 
part,  the  blood  of  the  Orient;  as  the  "hot-blooded,"  "thoroughbred," 
"running  horse,"  "Arabian"  and  "Oriental  horse."  The  term  "Orient" 
(the  east),  as  used  in  works  on  the  horse,  is  usually  applied  to  the  coun- 
tries of  Arabia,  Morocco,  Barbary  and  Turkey.  Although  Arabia  is  now 
thought  to  possess  horses  of  the  best  quality,  the  other  countries  men- 
tioned, and  even  Spain,  in  early  days,  are  said  to  have  possessed  better 
horses  than  did  Arabia, 


30  THE    HORSE 

T 

It  will  be  seen  that  Great  Britain  derived  her  horses 
from  those  which  were  in  the  country  at  the  time  of 
Caesar's  invasion  (55  B.C.),  which  subsequently  were 
improved  by  importation  of  Flemish  draft -horses  and 
others  of  the  same  type,  and  by  the  oriental  horse 
from  Barbary,  Arabia  and  Turkey,  and  from  Spain. 
It  was  not  long  before  two  distinct  types  were  devel- 
oped,—  the  draft -horse  and  the  light  thoroughbred. 
There  were,  indeed,  many  intermediate  types,  but  these 
two  types  for  a  long  time  stood  at  the  head  of  all 
others.  From  these  have  come  varieties,  a  few  of 
which  have  developed  into  breeds  sometimes  varying 
greatly  in  form  and  specialized  qualities.  Something 
analogous  to  this  also  transpired  in  France,  and  here, 
too,  is  seen  the  draft-  or  heavy  horse  and  the  light, 
quick  mover. 

The  people  of  Great  Britain  have  always  been 
rioted  for  their  love  of  agriculture  and  the  chase. 
From  time  immemorial,  equine  display  accompanied 
the  public  appearance  of  royalty,  and  this  encouraged 
outdoor  sports  among  the  people.  Whoever  main- 
tained one  or  more  horses  found  a  ready  passport 
into  society,  which  could  not  be  entered  in  absence 
of  such  ownership.  While  Britain's  greatest  strength 
in  modern  times  is  her  navy,  she  nevertheless  main- 
tains a  numerous  and  efficient  cavalry. 

Not  the  least  of  the  forces  which  have  long  been 
at  work  for  the  improvement  of  light  horses  is  the 
universal  love  of  the  English  for  outdoor  sports,  and 
especially  for  those  which  test  the  speed  and  endurance 
of  the  horse,  as  well  as  the  skill  of  its  rider.  The 


PERCHERON   HORSE    MODIFIED  31 

English  farmer  has  also  acquired  a  love  for  the  horse. 
Although  as  a  rule,  he  does  not,  participate  in  the  race, 
he  is  everywhere  conspicuous  and  has  thus  learned 
to  admire,  almost  adore,  the  hunter.  He  also  takes 
special  interest  in  the  agricultural-  and  draft -horses  for 
their  strong,  symmetrical,  plump  form  and  size  and  their 
ability  to  work.  Consequently,  in  breeding  and  im- 
provement, the  draft -horse  .has  kept  pace  with  those 
of  lighter  and  fleeter  forms.  Perhaps  no  other  people 
has  done  so  much  for  the  improvement  of  the  horse, 
and  the  dissemination  of  well-bred  animals,  as  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  America  is  certainly  indebted  to  Great 
Britain  for  a  wealth  of  valuable  foundation  stock  with 
which  to  begin  horse-breeding. 

THE   HORSE   IN   PRANCE 

Until  quite  recently,  France  has  furnished  to  America 
only  one  breed  of  horses,  the  heavy  Percheron,1  which 
has  been  imported  very  largely  during  the  last  third 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Percherons  have  been  most 
popular  in  the  west,  while  in  the  east  the  Clydesdales 
remain  as  popular  as  they  were  before  the  introduction 
of  other  draft -breeds. 

The  Percheron2  horse  has  a  most  interesting  history, 
since  he  is  a  marked  illustration  of  the  successful 
mingling  of  the  hot  blood  of  the  Orient  with  the 
cold -blood  draft  types.  The  blending  of  types  so  mark- 

1  Known  by  several  names;  see  Chapter  VIII. 

2  For   a   full   history  of  the  early  Percheron   horse,  see  "Percheron 
Horse,"  translated  from  the  French  of  Charles  Du  Huys  (1868),  Orange 
Judd  Co.,  New  York. 


32  THE    HORSE 

edly  dissimilar  in  nearly  all  characteristics,  into  a 
harmonious,  prepotent  breed,  is  not  only  difficult,  but 
quite  unusual. 

Little  is  known  of  the  character  of  the  horses  of 
France  prior  to  admixture  with  foreign  blood.  A 
marked  change  in  them  began  to  appear  soon  after 
the  battle  of  Tours  (732  A.  D.),  in  which  Charles 
Martel  defeated  the  famous  Saracen  chief,  Abdurame, 
and  killed  the  infidels  to  the  number  of  three  hundred 
thousand.  The  horses  of  the  Saracens,  like  themselves, 
came  from  the  East.  Upon  a  division  of  the  spoils, 
a  large  number  of  the  horses  were  assigned  to  the 
men  of  LaPerche,  Orleanais  and  Normandy,  who  com- 
posed the  bulk  of  the  French  forces.  The  custom  then, 
as  now,  was  to  leave  most  of  the  horses  entire;  there- 
fore the  magnificent  cavalry -horses  of  Abdurame  must 
have  had  marked  beneficial  effects  on  the  native  horses 
of  France.  These  three  provinces  still  constitute  the 
central  breeding  districts  of  the  Percherou. 

Du  Huys  says,  "The  Percheron  race  comes  from 
Arabia,"  but  he  adds  that  "the  Percheron  must  have 
been  especially  modified  by  contact  with  the  horses  of 
Britanny."  The  present  form  and  appearance  of  this 
breed  give  unmistakable  evidence  that  great  modifica- 
tions and  changes  have  taken  place  in  recent  years,  and 
such  changes  can  be  ascribed  only  to  an  infusion  of 
cold  blood  through  some  well-defined  breed  or  variety 
of  draft  animals. 


CHAPTER    III 

HORSES    OF   AMERICA 

THE  horse,  as  we  know  it,  is  not  indigenous  to 
North  America.  All  horses  that  are  found  in  America, 
except  those  that  have  been  brought  into  the  country 
within  the  last  few  years,  are  offspring  of  imported 
stock.  Since  the  imported  animals  from  which  our 
horses  are  derived  were  of  widely  different  character- 
istics and  have  been  kept  under  radically  different 
climatic,  food  and  use  conditions,  the  offspring  have 
presented  until  recently  few  fixed  and  distinguishing 
characteristics.  Especially  has  this  been  the  case  when 
the  imported  stock  or  their  full -blood  offspring  were 
mixed  with  the  nondescript1  females  which  often  con- 
tained the  mixed  blood  of  several  breeds  or  varieties 
differing  radically  in  size,  color  and  disposition.  This 
unintelligent  mixing  of  several  unlike  breeds  with 
mixed-blooded  animals,  combined  with  unwise  selection, 
has  produced  horses  devoid  of  marked  or  specialized 
qualities.  While  there  are  modern  methods  practiced 
to  a  limited  extent  where  the  breeding  of  horses  is 
pursued  along  scientific  lines,  so  that  the  specialized 
qualities  of  parents  are  perpetuated  with  some  degree 
of  certainty,  yet  most  of  the  horses  bred  in  America 
are  of  mixed  origin;  that  is,  they  trace  their  genealogy 

!An  animal  of  mixed  and  unknown  ancestry. 
C  (33) 


34  THE    HORSE 

to  nearly  as  many  breeds,  snbbreeds,  nondescripts 
and  varieties  as  they  have  American  ancestors.  Hence, 
in  the  rural  districts  we  see  many  inferior  horses — 
horses  of  varied  colors,  conformation,  temper,  size  and 
degrees  of  usefulness.  Some  are  worth  ten  times  as 
much  as  others,  yet  the  least  valuable  cost  as  much 
for  maintenance  and  nearly  as  much  for  rearing  as 
the  animals  that  sell  for  the  higher  prices.  This  brief 
outline  of  the  method  in  the  breeding  of  the  general 
horse  of  America  may  in  part  serve  to  explain  the 
discussions  that  follow. 

All  the  wild  horses  of  modern  times  are,  without 
doubt,  the  offspring  of  those  which  escaped  from 
domestication  in  earlier  centuries.  Those  of  the  Volga, 
the  steppes  of  northern  Asia,  and  those  of  the  northern 
districts  of  China  are  supposed  to  be  the  offspring  of 
horses  liberated  at  the  siege  of  Azof,  1657;  those  of 
Texas,  of  horses  abandoned  by  DeSoto  (1539-1542), 
or  possibly  of  those  turned  loose  at  the  time  the 
Spaniards  retired  from  Buenos  Ayres  and  which  were 
the  foundation  of  the  wild  horses  of  South  America. 
It  is  scarcely  probable,  however,  that  those  liberated 
in  South  America  would  wander  from  a  district  where 
pasture  was  abundant  and  the  climate  mild,  northward 
through  the  swamps  of  the  tropical  isthmus  into 
Texas.  It  may  be  concluded  then,  that  the  wild  horses 
of  North  and  South  America  sprang  from  two  distinct 
groups,  both  of  which  were  of  Spanish  blood.  No 
fossil  remains  of  the  modern  horse  have  been  discov- 
ered either  in  America,  Australia  or  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific.  It  may,  therefore,  be  concluded  that  the  horse 


CONESTOGA    AND    CANADIAN   HORSES  35 

as  now  known  was  not  indigenous  to  those  countries. 
On  the  other  hand,  fossil  remains  of  the  horse  of 
supposed  extreme  antiquity  have  been  discovered  in 
Great  Britain,  in  the  Kirkdale  cave  in  Yorkshire,  as 
well  as  in  other  caves,  mingled  with  the  bones  of  the 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  ox  and  tiger,  and  it  is  therefore 
presumed  that  horses  were  abundant  in  Great  Britain 
at  an  early  period. 

The  first  importation  of  horses  to  this  country  was 
made  by  Columbus  in  1493.  These  all  perished.  A  second 
importation,  forty -two  in  number,  was  made  in  1527;  a 
third  was  made  by  DeSoto  in  1540.  However,  Cortez 
landed  sixteen  horses  in  Mexico,  in  1519. l  In  1608,  the 
French  horse  was  brought  to  Canada,  and  in  1629  the 
Dutch  horse  to  New  York.  The  Dutch  horse  was 
round,  short-legged  and  might  properly  be  classed  as 
a  farm-  or  light  draft -horse.  These  horses  soon  spread 
into  Pennsylvania,  and  later  were  probably  crossed 
with  the  English  draft  -  horse.  The  progeny  soon 
formed  a  somewhat  distinctive  type,  developing  into  a 
distinct  variety  known  as  the  Conestoga.  This  com- 
paratively light  draft -horse,  bred  primarily  for  freight- 
ing heavy  merchandise  across  the  mountains  and  over 
primitive  roads,  was,  notwithstanding  his  lightness, 
as  compared  with  the  modern  draft -horse,  well  adapted 
to  the  pioneer's  farm,  where  much  work  required 
patience,  strength  and  hardiness.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  some  genius  did  not,  by  selection  and  inbreeding, 
improve  and  preserve  this  nascent  variety  of  animals 
until  its  valuable  qualities  had  become  fixed  and 

1  Conquest  of  Mexico,  Prescott,  Vol.  I,  page  218. 


36  THE    HORSE 

potent.  Here  was  the  foundation  ready  to  be  moulded 
by  the  hand  of  the  scientific  breeder  into  a  permanent 
breed.  This  variety  of  horses  had  been  in  the  country 
long  enough  to  become  thoroughly  acclimated  and 
adapted  to  environment,  and  had  been  used  for  draft 
purposes  from  the  first;  and  therefore  its  conforma- 
tion had  become  especially  adapted  to  draft  purposes, 
and  this,  too,  without  becoming  a  sluggish,  spiritless 
mountain  of  flesh.  Unfortunately,  this  variety  has 
become  extinct  or  has  merged  into  other  draft  types. 
The  Canadian  horses,  many  of  which  have  found 
their  way  into  the  States,  were  also  originally  of  the 
draft  or  semi- draft  type,  though  not  so  large  as 
the  draft-horse  of  modern  times.  In  recent  years, 
however,  the  importations  from  Canada  have  been 
principally  grade  thoroughbreds  for  saddle,  and  light- 
harness  horses.  Formerly  many  heavy -draft  horses  were 
imported.  However,  in  recent  years  the  importations 
have  fallen  off.  The  French -Canadians  imported  horses 
from  Normandy  and  Brittany,  a  warmer  climate  than 
that  to  which  they  were  taken.  The  progeny,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  lost  something  in  weight,  increased 
in  thickness  and  length  of  hair,  improved  in  texture  of 
bone,  and  acquired  more  spirit  than  their  ancestors.  It 
may  be  said  that  these  native -bred  horses  became  well 
adapted  in  time  to  the  needs  of  a  cold,  wooded,  new 
country.  Hardy,  strong,  alert,  long-lived — it  is  un- 
fortunate both  for  the  Dominion  and  the  States  that 
the  type  has  been  lost  by  admixture,  on  the  one  hand, 
with  the  heavy  draft  type,  arid,  on  the  other,  with  the 
blood  of  the  light  roadster,  or  thoroughbred. 


A     SADDLER    OF    THE    PLAINS  37 

In  like  manner,  the  pacer,  which  was  probably  of 
Narragansett  (Rhode  Island)  origin,  and  which  seemed 
likely  at  one  time  to  develop  into  a  breed,  has  been 
lost  as  a  distinct  variety.  Although  there  has  never 
been  an  active  demand  for  animals  inheriting  the 
pacing  gait,  yet  there  was  a  distinct  place  for  them; 
and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  breeders  did  not  continue 
along  the  lines  which  gave  unmistakable  evidence  of 
the  highest  success.  Instead  of  developing  breeds 
of  horses  in  America,  we  have,  at  great  expense,  been 
drawing  upon  Europe  for  breeding  stock,  which  was  not 
always  potent  enough  to  effect  any  improvement  upon 
our  home-bred  animals. 

In  the  Indian  pony  of  the  North,  and  the  Indian 
mustang  (Fig.  3)  of  the  Southwest,  and  the  bronco  of 
the  West,  the  foundation  stock  was  ready  at  hand  for 
the  formation  of  a  breed  of  light  saddle-horses,  unex- 
celled by  any  other  saddle  breed  for  traveling  long 
distances  on  scanty  food.  Instead  of  utilizing  this 
valuable  material,  we  have  imported  numbers  of  short- 
legged,  pudgy  ponies  from  Europe.  It  is  objected  that 
the  wonderful  little  horse  of  the  plains  has  not  a  good 
disposition.  The  same  may  be  said  of  any  other  variety 
of  high -mettled  horses  when  subjected  to  ill  treatment. 
On  the  plains  he  was  merely  trained;  had  he  been  fully 
domesticated  and  treated  as  kindly  as  the  trotter  has 
been,  and  as  intelligently  bred,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  this  class  of  horses,  which  will  soon  be  extinct, 
would  have  developed  into  a  most  valuable  breed.  From 
this  warm-blooded  horse,  though  many  generations 
removed  from  his  Spanish  ancestry,  a  pure  saddle  breed 


38 


THE    HORSE 


might  have  been  formed,  admirably  adapted  to  the 
arid  plains,  and  filling  a  place  so  difficult  to  fill  that, 
as  yet,  no  new  variety  or  breed  has  been  able  to 


FIG.  3.    An  improved  mustang  saddler 

fully  supplant  it,  or  to  fill  its  place  in  all  respects  as  a 
saddler  of  the  plains. 

Mr.  Frank  Forester,  in  his  work  on  the  American 
horse,  after  deploring  the  lack  of  attention  to  Arneri- 


THE    AMERICAN   ROADSTER  39 

can  varieties,  says:  "On  the  contrary,  while  the 
Conestoga  horse,  the  Canadian,  the  Indian  pony  of 
the  North,  the  Indian  mustang  of  the  South,  the 
Norman  horse  of  the  northeastern  British  Provinces, 
the  pacer  and  the  general  working,  or  farm -horse,  of 
the  middle  states,  have  no  chronicler,  we  go  on  import- 
ing and  studying  elaborate  treatises  on  the  English 
hackney,  the  English  cart-horse,  the  English  dray- 
horse,  the  Suffolk  Punch,  the  Cleveland  bay,  the 
Galloway,  the  Shetland  pony,  and  I  know  not  what 
else;  when  it  is  notorious  to  every  horseman  in  the 
country  that  not  one  of  these  varieties  does  exist — ever 
did  exist — except  in  the  case  of  the  individual  importa- 
tion; or,  if  they  do  exist,  would  be  of  any  value  or 
utility  in  North  America."  Perhaps  this  statement  is 
somewhat  overdrawn;  nevertheless,  it  contains  much 
truth. 

Previous  to  the  Revolutionary  War,  a  number  of 
thoroughbred  horses  had  been  imported,  but  none  of 
the  states  or  colonies  had  regularly  established  race- 
courses except  Maryland,  Virginia  and  South  Carolina. 
The  northerner  paid  little  attention  to  the  breeding 
of  thoroughbreds  until  nearly  half  a  century  after  the 
war.  From  the  race -horse  it  was  an  easy  step  to  the 
trotter.  Out  of  the  oriental  racing  blood,  tracing 
back  in  some  lines  to  the  time  of  Charles  II  (1660-1685), 
has  been  developed  in  the  United  States  a  most  valu- 
able, it  might  be  said  wonderful  horse,  the  American 
trotter  or  roadster.  Many  causes  have  led  to  his  pro- 
duction. A  single  one,  on  aononnt  of  its  uniqueness, 
may  be  mentioned.  To  the  Puritans,  the  running  of 


40  THE    HORSE 

horses  was  a  sinful  pastime,  and  the  gait,  therefore,  a 
useless  and  a  dangerous  one,  hence  everything  was 
done  to  discourage  the  breeding  of  a  horse  which  was 
almost  certain  to  be  used  largely  for  racing.  The 
trotting  gait  was  useful  and  not  so  likely  to  lead 
youths  astray;  so  until  quite  recently  running  horses 
were  excluded  from  the  tracks  of  the  State  and  County 
Agricultural  Societies  of  the  eastern  and  middle 
states,  while  trotting  horses  were  freely  admitted. 
Thus  the  Puritans  unwittingly  did  much  to  encour- 
age the  improvement  of  the  trotter.  The  South  fol- 
lowed more  closely  after  English  customs,  hence  ra- 
cing in  most  of  the  southern  states  has  always  been 
popular;  while  in  the  North  the  trotting  gait  in  horses 
has  been  more  prized,  and  little  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  running  horse  until  the  last  two  decades. 
He  is  now  nearly  as  popular  in  the  North  as  in  the 
South. 

From  an  admixture  of  the  hot  blood  of  the  East 
with  the  best  specimens  of  the  mixed  blooded  horses 
of  the  North  has  come,  when  it  has  been  judiciously 
mingled,  a  large  number  of  superior  roadsters, —  horses 
of  courage,  endurance  and  speed,  such  as  no  other 
country  possesses.  These  horses  have  had  a  very 
marked  effect  on  the  style  and  construction  of  our 
light  wagons.  They  have  also  been  the  means  by 
which  the  American  boy  has  become  a  superior  horse 
man.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  true  that  too  often 
the  warm-blooded  horses  have  been  bred  to  inferior 
nondescript  mares,  which  resulted  in  progeny  of  di- 
minished size  and  bone  and  undesirable  temperament, 


THE    AMERICAN   ROADSTER  41 

without  securing  compensating  benefits  in  any  direc- 
tion. The  anatomical  proportions  of  these  grades 
were  often  bad,  the  limbs  too  light  and  crooked  for 
the  service  required,  a  temperament  too  high  for  the 
slow  work  of  the  industries  and  not  fast  enough  to 
secure  either  prize  money  or  pleasure.  By  chis  unwise 
breeding  many  horses  totally  lacking  in  any  specialized 
qualities  have  been  produced, — horses  which  tended  to 
become  unsound  as  soon  as  they  were  used  either  for 
purposes  of  gain  or  pleasure.  In  some  sections  more 
unsound  horses  may  be  found  in  a  single  county 
than  can  be  seen  in  the  whole  of  any  great  horse  dis- 
trict of  France  or  Great  Britain. 

The  cold  climate  of  the  North  made  equestrianship 
unpleasant  for  half  of  the  year.  The  trotter  is  not 
usually  a  good  saddle-horse;  hence  roadsters  have 
been  bred  in  greater  numbers  and  perfection  in  the 
northern  and  western  parts  of  the  United  States  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  comparatively 
fine  condition  of  the  roads  in  summer  makes  it  possible 
for  two  or  three  persons,  with  one  horse  attached  to 
a  light  vehicle,  to  travel  as  rapidly  as  the  equestrian, 
and  far  more  comfortably  in  bad  weather.  The  inge- 
nuity and  skill  of  the  American  mechanic,  exhibited 
in  the  various  forms  of  road  -  wagons,  have  had  a 
potent  influence  in  the  development  of  a  class  of 
rapid,  pleasure  -  giving  roadsters,  such  as  no  other 
country  even  approaches.  On  the  plains  and  in  the 
South  the  saddle-horse  became  a  necessity.  The  high- 
mettled  horse  well  suited  to  the  saddle  was  not  the 
best  animal  for  unskilled  laborers  to  use  in  the  cotton 


42  THE    HORSE 

and  cane  fields  of  the  South,  so  the  mule  came  in  to 
fill  the  gap. 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  why  Americans  have  not 
produced  a  dozen  breeds  or  varieties  of  horses,  each  as 
well  fitted  for  its  locality  and  use  as  the  roadster  is 
fitted  for  the  place  which  he  fills  so  well  in  our  broad, 
diversified  country.  We  had  a  rare  foundation  in  the 
greatest  of  all  the  pioneer  horses,  the  Morgan  family, 
but  were  so  slow  in  recognizing  it  that  it  has  nearly 
slipped  from  our  grasp.  Perhaps  this  dearth  of  Ameri- 
can breeds  is  due  to  the  magic  of  that  one  word,  "im- 
ported," which  occupies  the  most  prominent  place  on 
the  breeder's  hand -bills,  when  he  calls  attention  to  the 
animals  bought  and  bred.  It  is  asserted  that  many 
grades,  or  at  least  animals  of  doubtful  breeding,  have 
been  imported  at  long  prices;  —  that  magic  word,  "im- 
ported," serving  to  take  the  place  of  an  authenticated 
pedigree  long  enough  to  insure  that  the  animal  really 
belonged  to  some  well-defined  breed. 

Pedigrees  taken  from  the  first  volumes  of  stud- 
books  are  appended,  to  show  on  what  slender  evidence 
the  claim  of  pure  breeding  in  early  days  was  some- 
times based.  In  both  cases  the  full  recorded  pedigree  is 
transcribed: 

210 

NAILOB 
Bred  by  Thomas  Barker,  Fryton 

356 

WONDER 
Sire  Volunteer,  557 


"IMPORTED"  43 

A  large  number  of  similar  pedigrees  might  be 
given,  but  they  would  serve  no  useful  purpose.  The 
object  in  transcribing  these  is  to  illustrate  how  little 
claim  can  be  made  to  pure  breeding  of  animals  whose 
breeder's  name,  date  of  birth  and  name  of  sire  and 
dam  are  all  wanting.  However,  short  pedigrees  do  not 
necessarily  imply  inferiority  nor  lack  of  prepotency  of 
the  animals  to  which  they  belong.  While  it  is  desir- 
able to  know  as  much  as  possible  of  every  horse's 
ancestry,  it  is  easy  to  lay  too  much  stress  on  pedigree 
and  too  little  on  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  horse  for 
the  use  contemplated. 

There  has  been  no  time  during  the  last  century 
when  superb  animals  could  not  have  been  selected 
from  varieties  of  horses  in  America  with  lineage  well 
known  for  two  or  three  generations.  A  little  judg- 
ment in  mating,  rigid  selection  and  improved  food 
and  environment  would  have  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  breeds  as  valuable  as  those  which  have  been 
imported  at  great  expense  and  better  adapted  to 
climate,  food  and  use  than  are  the  progeny,  as  a 
whole,  of  foreign -bred  sires  and  dams.  We  have  a 
marked  illustration  of  the  success  of  such  an  under- 
taking in  the  American  trotter.  It  may  be  said  that 
the  foundation  stock,  in  part  at  least,  was  imported. 
But  if  no  effort  had  been  made  to  produce  a  distinct 
American  variety  of  horse,  we  should  still  be  import- 
ing hot-blooded  foundation  stock  of  far  less  speed 
than  is  possessed  by  the  home-bred  animals.  It  is 
little  wonder,  then,  that  so  distinguished  a  writer  on 
the  horse  as  Frank  Forester  should  call  attention,  in 


44  THE    HORSE 

most  vigorous  language,  to  the  neglect  of  home-bred 
varieties  and  the  craze  for  importing  varieties  (so- 
called  breeds)  so  recent  in  their  formation  and  of 
such  doubtful  lineage  as  to  throw  discredit  on  the 
purity  of  blood  and  the  potency  of  some  of  the 
animals  imported. 

The  saving  factors  which  have  been  present  in 
America  for  nearly  one  hundred  years  are  —  abundant, 
cheap,  nutritious  food  and  unusually  kind  and  intel- 
ligent treatment.  So,  notwithstanding  mistakes  and 
lost  opportunities,  we  have  large  numbers  of  good 
horses,  and  some  superior  ones  which  compensate  in 
part  for  the  poor  ones.  One  only  regrets  that  a  fuller 
utilization  has  not  been  made  of  the  unusually  favor- 
able conditions  in  America  for  the  rearing  and  improv- 
ing of  horses  and  the  formation  of  breeds  and  varieties. 

The  South  has  always  possessed  many  good  saddle- 
horses,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  any  well-defined 
effort  has  been  made  to  produce  a  distinct  breed  of 
them.  The  southern  saddle-horse  and  all  good  car- 
riage-horses have  a  strong  infusion  of  warm  blood. 
This,  united  with  the  best  of  what  might  be  called 
native  blood  (nondescript),  often  produced  superior 
animals.  The  material  for  forming  the  ideal  saddle- 
horse  has  long  been  present,  but  only  recently  has 
any  intelligent  and  persistent  effort  been  made  to 
produce  a  distinct  saddle  breed  or  variety.  (Fig.  4.) 
Such  marked  results  have  been  reached  by  these  few 
years  of  well-directed  effort  that  the  only  wonder 
is  the  work  had  not  been  undertaken  before.  In  a 
similar  manner  other  American  breeds,  suited  to  their 


Fia.  4.    A  saddler  at  rest 


46  THE    HOUSE 

work  and  environment  as  well  as  the  saddle-horse  and 
the  trotter  are  to  theirs,  should  have  been  produced; 
for  good  material  in  abundance  has  been  at  hand  during 
the  last  half  of  this  century.1 

Notwithstanding  the  neglect  and  want  of  apprecia- 
tion of  the  material  at  hand  for  forming  breeds,  vast 
numbers  of  good  nondescript  horses  are  raised  each 
year.  The  great  city  markets  and  the  expert  pur- 
chasers of  cavalry -horses  attest  to  the  quality  of  one 
class  of  our  horses  at  least  when  rapid  movement  and 
endurance  are  desired.  The  climate,  food  and  environ- 
ment of  the  American -bred  horse  must  certainly  be 
superior,  since,;  in  a  majority  of  cases,  but  little  science 
has  been  observed  or  pains  taken  in  mating  the  parents 
with  a  vie\Y  to  the  production  of  definite  results. 

The  breeders  who  are  improving  the  horses  of  the 
country  by  breeding  with  one  or  more  distinct  pur- 
poses in  view,  and  who  are  securing  definite  results  of 
great  value,  are  so  few  as  compared  with  those  who 
breed  to  the  cheapest  or  the  most  convenient  stallion, 
that  the  improvement  of  the  great  mass  of  horses 
is  very  slow.  From  1890  to  1900,  poor  and  common 
horses  brought  low  and  unremunerative  prices;  while 
the  prices  of  good  horses,  though  sales  were  a  little 
slow,  fell  but  slightly.  The  mistake  should  not  again 
be  made  of  breeding  vast  herds  of  third-rate  animals. 
It  has  been  discovered  that  Europe  stands  ready  to 
purchase  at  fair  prices  large  numbers  of  horses,  pro- 
vided they  have  some  style,  are  sound,  active,  sym- 
metrical, of  good  color  and  of  about  nine  to  twelve 

1  See  Chapters  IV  to  VIII  for  details  of  breeds. 


THE    COMMONER    HORSE  47 

hundred  pounds  weight.  This  class  of  horses  should 
now  be  produced  cheaply,  if  pains  are  taken  in  bringing 
together  the  appropriate  strains  of  blood.  The  founda- 
tion stock  for  the  production  of  this  class  of  animals  is 
at  hand  and  abundant.  Such  horses  are  well  adapted 
to  more  than  three -fourths  of  the  work  performed  by 
horses  in  the  United  States.  What  is  wanted  is  a 
slightly  modified  and  enlarged  old-fashioned  Morgan 
horse,  with  feet  like  iron,  legs  like  steel,  hair  like  silk, 
courage  that  never  falters  and  placidity  that  never 
degenerates  into  sluggishness.  Such  a  horse  will  charm 
the  multitude,  though  he  be  not  a  mountain  of  flesh,  nor 
as  fleet  as  a  grey -hound,  nor  his  name  be  writ  high  in 
the  roll  of  aristocratic  equines.  He  will  only  be  a  dis- 
tinguished commoner,  a  citizen  of  the  great  horse 
republic.  Such  a  horse  will  not  be  a  so-called  "general- 
purpose  horse,"  neither  will  he  be  specialized  toward 
draft  or  speed, —  just  a  mighty  handy  fellow  to  have 
around,  ready  and  willing  at  all  times  to  "fetch  and 
carry,"  so  long  as  he  is  not  asked  to  fetch  with  light- 
ning speed  or  carry  the  elephant's  burden.  He  will  not 
be  a  true,  high-priced  coach -horse,  nor  the  ideal 
saddle-horse. 

In  imagination  I  see  this  commoner  horse  ready 
to  serve  the  citizen:  Bay  in  color,  black  points,  short 
back  with  neck  which  has  a  little  suggestion  of  the 
peacock's  and  an  eye  that  meets  your  gaze  bravely; 
a  collar  seat  which  lovingly  embraces  the  shoulders, 
a  breast  which  protrudes  like  the  prow  of  a  schooner, 
legs  wide  enough  apart  to  prevent  their  interfering 
and  to  give  room  for  the  inside  leg  muscles  strong 


48  THE    HORSE 

enough  firmly  to  attach  the  limbs  to  the  body;  so 
close -ribbed  that  one  will  not  continually  be  re- 
minded of  a  slatted  corn -crib  that  can  never  be  kept 
full,  and  yet  not  so  close -ribbed  as  to  prevent  long 
action,  for  it  is  evident  that  a  short -bodied,  very  close- 
ribbed  horse  must  be  short -gaited;  that  symmetrical 
development  of  hind  legs,  rump  and  levers  which  can 
neither  be  fully  described  nor  illustrated,  but  the 
symmetry  of  which  the  trained  eye  takes  in  at  a 
glance,  and  the  judgment  approves  because  the  pro- 
peller end  of  this  complex  machine  gives  evidence 
that  it  will  make  things  move  in  this  work -a -day  world. 
Who  will  breed  these  horses,  always  salable  at 
fair  prices,  wanted  not  only  in  America  but  in  Europe 
as  well,  in  countless  numbers  1  There  is  a  superabun- 
dance of  foundation  stock  from  which  to  select.  Such 
an  animal  as  has  been  described  is  not  difficult  or 
expensive  to  produce.  He  may  be  of  mixed -blood 
ancestry  and  yet  be  very  good  in  his  class.  He  will 
stand  intermediate  between  the  two  extremes  and 
might  be  bred  on  the  principle  described  by  the  owner 
of  a  very  superior  dog,  who,  when  asked  about  the 
blood  of  the  dog,  replied  that  he  was  "half  pointer, 
quarter  setter  and  the  remainder  just  plain  dog." 


CHAPTER   IV 

BREEDS,  SUBBREEDS,  FAMILIES,    VARIETIES, 
CROSS-BREEDS   AND    GRADES 

THE  term  "breed,"  as  used  by  the  farmer,  signifies 
a  group  or  class  of  animals  having  a  number  of  dis- 
tinctive qualities  and  characteristics  in  common,  and 
the  power  to  transmit  those  distinctive  traits  with  a 
good  degree  of  certainty.  Such  groups  of  animals 
have  distinctive  names,  such  as  "thoroughbred," 
"Clydesdale,"  "Pereheron,"  "Shorthorns"  and  recorded 
pedigrees  usually  tracing  back  for  two,  three  or  more 
generations.  In  the  case  of  a  long-established  breed, 
as  the  Shorthorns,  the  recorded  pedigree  may  go 
back  a  hundred  years  or  more  and  for  many  generations. 

A  breed  is  usually  started  by  selecting  two  or  more 
unusually  good  animals  from  a  group  that  has  been 
produced  in  a  locality  by  reason  of  better  food,  en- 
vironment and  intelligent  selection,  and  which  is 
usually  superior  to  the  animals  of  the  same  species  in 
other  localities.  These  few  having  been  selected, 
inbreeding  is  practiced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  for 
the  purpose  of  perpetuating  and  intensifying  one  or 
more  desired  characteristics.  At  first  this  work  is 
usually  carried  on  by  one,  or  at  most  a  few,  of  the 
most  intelligent  breeders,  who,  by  improving  condi- 
tions, have  first  improved  the  quality  of  their  own 


50  THE    HORSE 

stock.  From  time  to  time  animals  with  some  superior 
characteristics  are  selected  from  the  nascent  variety,  and 
these  are  inbred  for  a  time,  producing  a  variety  which 
may  develop  into  a  breed.  Again,  a  family  may  be 
formed  within  the  breed  by  selection  and  inbreeding. 
For  instance,  the  breed  of  Shorthorn  cattle  contains 
several  quite  noted  families,  such  as  the  Duchess  and 
the  Waterloo.  The  term  "tribe"  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  "family"  in  this  connection.  A  small  group 
of  animals  which  have  been  improved  but  have  not 
yet:  taken  on  all  of  the  fixed  characteristics  of  a  breed 
should  be  called  a  "variety."  Under  skilful  man- 
agement it  may,  and  usually  does,  ripen  into  a  breed. 
When  the  breeders  of  a  group  or  variety  decide  that 
the  distinctive  characteristics  are  reasonably  well  fixed, 
they  publish  what  is  known  of  the  breeding  of  the 
better  animals  of  this  variety  in  a  first  volume  of  a 
stud-book,  herd-  or  flock-book,  and  thus  the  breed 
makes  it  official  appearance.  In  the  United  States 
and  Canada  there  are  now  published  by  the  various 
livestock  registry  associations  twenty -one  pedigree 
records  of  horses,  twenty-five  of  cattle,  thirty-one  of 
sheep  and  twenty-two  of  swine.  A  volume  for  each 
breed  is  usually  published  annually.  (See  Appendix, 
for  further  information.) 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  when  the  attempt  is  made 
to  launch  a  breed  and  establish  a  record  of  genealogy, 
or  pedigree,  for  the  various  animals  selected  for  such 
record,  the  first  pedigrees  must  be  based  on  un- 
published records.  Not  infrequently,  some  of  the 
foundation  stock  are  recorded  simply  by  name,  and 


ESTABLISHING    A    PEDIGREE  51 

nothing  is  said  of  ancestors,  because  nothing  is  known 
of  them.  In  the  case  of  trotting -horses  the  pedigree 
may  end  abruptly  on  the  darn's  side  by  the  statement 
"out  of  a  good  road  mare."  Fortunately,  the  launching 
of  a  new  breed  and  the  admission  of  animals  to 
registry  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  expert  and 
reliable  committee  or  commission.  The  rules  governing 
the  registration  of  animals  of  different  breeds  in  the 
first  volume,  and  sometimes  in  a  few  subsequent  volumes, 
are  quite  variable,  and  half-bloods,  three-fourths  bloods 
and  even  animals  of  unknown  origin  are  sometimes 
registered  in  the  first  instance.  As  the  years  go  by,  the 
rules  for  admission  to' registration  are  made  more  strict, 
and  finally  no  animal  is  eligible  for  record  whose  sire 
and  dam  are  not  recorded.  Most  recorded  animals  have 
three,  four,  or  more  generations  of  recorded  ancestors 
on  both  the  dam  and  the  sire  side.  The  Shorthorn  Herd- 
book  serves  well  to  illustrate  the  subject  of  pedigrees, 
and  has  been  selected  for  illustration  because  the  first 
volume  was  compiled  with  great  care  and  subsequent 
issues  have  been  supervised  most  critically.  The  first 
volume  was  issued  when  pedigrees  were  little  prized 
by  livestock  farmers,  yet  the  utmost  care  was  taken 
to  verify  the  quality  and  breeding  of  animals  admitted 
to  record,  as  well  as  the  reliability  of  the  breeders. 

The  following  records  are  taken  from  the  first 
volume  of  Coate's  English  Shorthorn  Herd-book.  It 
will  be  seen  that  apparently  no  information  whatever 
as  to  breeding  was  obtainable;  nevertheless,  we  are  not 
to  suppose  that  these  animals  were  not  above  the 
average  of  the  cattle  in  their  locality.  In  most  herd 


52  THE    HORSE 

books  the  males  and  females  are  designated  by  both 
names  and  numbers,  while  no  number  is  given  to  the 
female  shorthorns: 

No.  77,  Blossom. 

No.  84,  Blutcher. 

No.  87,  Booth. 

So  closely  have  the  pedigrees  of  more  recent 
recorded  animals  been  supervised  that  it  is  possible  to 
trace  for  from  six  to  ten,  and  even  to  more  generations, 
the  ancestry  of  animals  bred  as  far  back  as  1870  with 
scarcely  a  single  break.  One  of  many  illustrations 
which  might  be  cited  is  the  pedigree,  so  far  as  the 
page  will  allow,  of  the  Eighth  Duchess  of  Geneva 
(Fig.  5),  sold  at  public  auction  September  10,  1873, 
at  New  York  Mills  for  $40,600.  It  would  require  a 
strip  of  paper  some  ten  feet  wide  and  three  hundred 
feet  long  to  give  her  entire  pedigree  and  to  record  all 
of  the  names  of  her  well -authenticated  ancestors  in 
ordinary  writing  in  the  form  given  below,  in  which 
but  six  generations  are  set  down.  As  the  number  of 
ancestors  in  each  generation  increases  in  a  geometrical 
ratio,  the  seventh  generation  would  contain  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty -eight  ancestors,  the  tenth  generation 
one  thousand  and  twenty -four,  and  the  fifteenth  genera- 
tion thirty- two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty- 
eight  ancestors.  There  are  many  animals  now  living 
which  have  still  more  extended  pedigrees  then  the  Eighth 
Duchess  of  Geneva.  Some  animals  are  recorded  in  both 
the  English  and  the  American  herd -books.  The  num- 
bers in  parentheses  refer  to  the  English,  the  others  to 
the  American  records. 


j?,a^ 


{ 


FlQ.  5.    A  superior  pedigree 


54  THE   HORSE 

As  a  rule,  the  longer  the  pedigree  of  the  sire  and 
dam  the  more  closely  will  the  offspring  resemble  its 
immediate  parents,  especially  if  they  have  been  some- 
what inbred.  If  the  pedigree  of  an  animal  contains 
the  names  of  many  noted  ancestors,  it  gives  value  to 
the  animal  over  and  above  that  of  one  with  a  pedigree 
which  contains  few  or  no  distinguished  ancestors,  pro- 
vided that  the  animals  are  equally  meritorious.  These 
latter  are  called  "plain"  pedigrees.  But  a  long  pedigree 
does  not  necessarily  add  value  to  the  animal  which 
possesses  it.  The  pedigree  value,  then,  consists  largely 
in  showing  that  the  animal  to  which  it  belongs  has 
been  bred  without  any  admixture  of  blood  outside  of 
the  breed  so  far  back  as  the  pedigree  extends,  and  it 
may  also  be  of  value  in  revealing  the  names  and 
numbers  of  unusually  meritorious  ancestors.  However, 
animals  of  unusual  merit  occasionally  have  short  pedi- 
grees; the  genealogical  value  of  such  a  pedigree  being 
based  largely  on  the  animal's  prepotency,  or  on  that  of 
its  near  ancestors,  and  not  on  the  length  of  time  which 
has  elapsed  since  its  ancestors  were  first  recorded. 

Both  long  and  short  pedigrees  are  found  not  only  in 
the  records  of  Shorthorns  but  in  those  of  other  breeds 
of  animals,  though  most  of  the  Shorthorns  of  today 
have  longer  recorded  and  better  authenticated  pedigrees 
than  many  other  breeds  of  domesticated  animals. 

A  short  and  a  long  pedigree  are  given  below  and 
well  illustrate  the  evolution  of  pedigree -making: 

Angus  Ladd  (1046). 
Foaled  May,  1856. 

Sire,  a  horse  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Strathmore. 
Pedigree  unknown. 


war 

-f 


7ft  I 


iibi 


FIG.  6.    A  marked  case  of  in-and-in  breeding 


56  THE    HORSE 

The  pedigree  of  Alphea  Czar  (Fig.  6)  is  one  of 
many  which  might  be  cited  to  illustrate  persistent 
inbreeding.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the 
strict  meaning  of  the  term  "inbred"  is  not  well  de- 
fined. In  a  general  way  it  is  used  to  designate  the 
mingling  of  the  blood  of  animals  more  closely  related 
than  second  or  third  cousins. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  genealogy  of  Moses  (Fig. 
7)  traces  back  ten  times  to  Terah,  and  that  so  far  as 
the  record  goes  the  ancestry  of  the  father  and  mother 
of  Moses  are  identical,  with  the  exception  of  two 
paternal  and  one  maternal  ancestors.  The  fact  should 
not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  there  are  but  forty- 
seven  ancestors  recorded,  whereas  he  had  in  the  eight 
generations  four  hundred  and  ten  ancestors,  and  that 
in  the  last,  or  eighth,  generation  there  are  one  hundred 
and  twenty  -  eight  maternal  ancestors,  only  two  of 
whom  are  mentioned  in  the  record,  and  one  hundred 
and  twenty -eight  paternal  ancestors,  only  five  of  whom 
are  mentioned.  Stated  mathematically,  Moses'  gene- 
alogy in  the  eighth  generation  traces  back  to  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty -six  ancestors  and  shows  that  he  received 
two  two -hundred -and -fifty -sixths  of  his  blood  from 
Haran,  five  two -hundred -and -fifty -sixths  from  Terah 
and  two-hundred  and  forty -nine  two -hundred -and -fifty- 
sixths  from  unknown  and  unrecorded  blood.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  ancestors  of  Moses  not 
recorded  were  related  more  or  less  closely  to  those 
which  are  enumerated.  In  the  case  of  domestic  animals, 
the  probabilities  are  that  the  unrecorded  ancestors 
were  not  closely  related,  nor  is  it  probable  that  they 


.(" 

,r 


3^L 


FIG.  7.    Genealogy  of  Moses 


58  THE    HORSE 

came  from  homogeneous  blood.  For  an  extended  dis- 
cussion of  inbreeding,  see  Chapter  XII. 

A  grade  is  the  progeny  of  a  full -blood  and  a 
"nondescript,"  the  latter  term  meaning,  in  this  con- 
nection, an  animal  usually  having  little  or  no  improved 
blood  and  of  no  authenticated  and  recorded  ancestry. 
The  term  "high  grade"  is  usually  applied  to  animals 
which  have  derived  seven -eighths  or  more  of  their  blood 
from  the  full-blooded  ancestry.  This  term  is  seldom 
used  to  indicate  the  lineage  of  horses,  they  being 
specifically  termed  half-blood,  three -fourths  blood,  and 
so  on. 

Subbreeds  are  formed  by  selecting,  from  a  breed, 
two  or  more  animals  which  may  vary  slightly  from  the 
usual  type  of  the  breed,  and  then  by  accentuating 
the  differences  by  means  of  improved  food,  manage- 
ment and  selection.  A  good  illustration  of  a  subbreed 
is  the  Delaine  Merino  sheep.  This  subbreed  was 
started  by  selecting  animals  that  produced  wool  longer 
than  the  average.  These  were  put  under  better  con- 
ditions and  when  the  offspring  varied  toward  wool 
of  a  longer  staple  and  yet  of  good  quality,  they  were 
preserved.  Those  were  discarded  which  did  not  show 
improvement  along  the  line  desired  and  also  those 
which  tended  to  revert  to  the  shorter -wooled  type.  If 
the  increase  in  the  length  of  wool  had  been  secured  by 
a  cross  with  one  of  the  long-wooled  breeds,  then  the 
term  "cross-breed"  would  have  been  appropriate. 

A  cross-bred  animal  is  the  progeny  of  two  distinct 
breeds,  as  the  White  Plymouth  Rock,  which  was  prob- 
ably produced  by  crossing  the  White  Leghorn  with  the 


GOOD    ANIMALS    STIMULATE    PRIDE  59 

Plymouth  Rock.  If  the  breed  was  formed  as  it  is 
asserted,  then  a  more  appropriate  name  for  these  fowls 
would  be  Plymouth  Leghorns. 

If,  then,  as  has  been  stated,  a  pedigree  may  be  long 
or  short,  may  be  deficient  or  complete  on  the  dam's 
side,  may  contain  many,  few  or  no  distinguished  an- 
cestors, is  it  still  helpful  and  valuable,  and  if  so,  in 
what  ways?  If  a  pedigree  be  scanned  closely  it  may 
reveal  first  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  breed 
took  on  well  -  defined  characteristics.  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  longer  the  breed  has  been  established 
the  greater  are  the  chances  that  the  offspring  will 
closely  resemble,  in  all  of  its  characteristics,  its  ances- 
tors. If  one  is  familiar  with  the  breed  under  con- 
sideration, he  will  quickly  recognize  the  names  of  the 
superior  animals  recorded  in  the  pedigree.  This  will 
naturally  lead  to  a  study  of  the  history  and  per- 
formance of  these  animals  as  set  forth  by  the  best 
informed  writers  who  have  been  or  are  interested  in 
the  breeds;  it  gives  assurance  that  the  animal  whose 
pedigree  is  being  considered  is  pure  bred  and  not  a 
grade  or  a  nondescript,  and  enables  one  to  ascertain 
whether  the  animal  in  question  is  descended  from  su- 
perior specimens  of  the  breed.  It  helps  one  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  methods  practiced  by  the  most 
successful  breeders.  A  good  knowledge  of  pedigrees 
and  the  possession  of  recorded  animals  are  powerful 
stimulants,  which  are  likely  to  result  in  an  endeavor 
to  improve  the  breed  along  one  or  more  lines;  and 
this  in  turn  serves  to  stimulate  an  honest  pride  in  the 
breeder's  profession. 


60  THE    HORSE 

On  the  other  hand,  reliance  on  pedigree  alone  may 
work  disastrous  results  if  followed  blindly.  Individual 
merit  should  accompany  a  pedigree.  When,  as  some- 
times happens,  a  pedigree  is  simply  a  record  of  degen- 
erates, it  only  helps  to  mislead.  The  eye  of  the  breeder 
that  is  quick  to  detect  every  improvement  or  note  the 
least  tendency  to  retrogression  is  the  chief  thing  to  be 
relied  upon  when  breeding  any  kind  of  domestic 
animals  for  improvement. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  THOROUGHBRED;  THE  TROTTER;  THE  PACER 

Chapter  by  ROE   KEISINGER 

THE  American  thoroughbred  is  descended  in  all  his 
lines  from  the  English  race-horse,  and  he  in  turn  from 
Arabian,  Turkish  and  Barb  stock.  For  more  than 
a  century  and  a  half  the  English  Stud-book  has  been 
maintained,  in  which  has  been  registered  every  mare 
of  thorough  blood,  by  name,  with  her  lineage  and  all 
her  foals;  the  oldest  and  most  remote  of  these  mares 
tracing  back  their  eight,  nine  or  more  generations  to 
known  Oriental  horses,  or  horses  known  to  be  largely, 
if  not  wholly,  Arabian,  Turkish  or  Barb.  No  animal 
having  an  unknown  or  a  cold  cross  within  a  hundred 
and  fifty  years  back  in  its  line  could  be  entered  in 
the  English  Stud-book,  and  no  American  horse  can 
be  regarded  as  thoroughbred  that  does  not  meet  as 
high  requirements.  There  have  been  a  number  of 
high -class  race -horses  whose  pedigrees  have  been  short 
in  one  or  more  lines,  but  never  in  the  history  of  the 
turf  has  a  great  sire  appeared  in  whose  blood  was  a 
near  cross  other  than  thoroughbred. 

The  British  horse  had  a  considerable  degree  of 
excellence  before  the  Roman  conquest  and  was  a  good 
subject  for  the  later  crossing  with  the  Oriental  breeds. 
Youatt,  in  his  work  on  the  horse,  states  that  Ca3sar 

(01) 


62  THE   HORSE 

thought  the  British  horses  so  valuable  that  he  carried 
many  of  them  to  Rome,  and  that  for  a  considerable 
period  afterward  British  horses  were  in  great  request 
in  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire.  He  states  that, 
during  the  occupation  of  England  by  the  Romans,  the 
British  horse  was  crossed  to  a  considerable  extent  with 
the  Roman  horse;  but  he  probably  meant  the  foreign 
horses  of  the  Roman  mercenary  or  allied  cavalry, 
from  the  fact  that  horses  had  been  introduced  into 
Britain  from  Gaul  and  chariot  races  were  instituted 
long  before  the  Christian  era.  This  suggestion  is 
adopted  from  the  work  of  Herbert  on  the  horse.  In 
England,  horse -racing  early  became  a  fixed  custom. 
We  learn  from  history  that,  after  the  reign  of  Alfred, 
running  horses  were  imported  from  Germany.  That 
the  English,  fully  a  thousand  years  ago,  had  produced 
a  valuable  breed  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  930 
A.  D.  a  law  prohibited  the  exportation  of  horses. 
Many  Spanish  horses  were  imported  into  England  in 
Athelstan's  reign.  William  the  Conqueror  rode  a 
Spanish  horse  (probably  of  Oriental  breed)  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  and  won  the  day  by  his  cavalry. 
He  imported  many  fine  Norman,  Flemish  and  Span- 
ish horses  and  his  great  nobles  followed  his  example. 
Early  writers  attest  the  value  of  the  stock  descending 
from  these  sources. 

We  learn  from  Fitz  Stephen,  a  contemporary  his- 
torian, that  in  the  twelfth  century  a  regular  race- 
course had  been  established  in  London.  He  thus  de- 
scribes the  races:  "When  a  race  is  to  be  run  by  horses 
which  in  their  kind  are  strong  and  fleet,  a  shout  is 


THE    THOROUGHBRED  63 

raised,  and  common  horses  are  ordered  to  withdraw 
from  out  of  the  way.  Two  jockeys,  then,  or  some- 
times three,  as  the  case  may  be,  prepare  themselves 
for  the  contest,  such  as  are  used  to  ride,  and  know 
how  to  manage  their  horses  with  judgment,  the  grand 
point  being  to  prevent  a  competitor  from  getting 
before  them.  The  horses,  on  their  part,  are  not  without 
emulation.  They  tremble,  and  are  impatient  and  con- 
tinually in  motion.  At  last,  the  signal  once  given, 
they  hurry  along  with  unremitting  velocity;  the 
jockeys,  inspired  with  the  thoughts  of  applause  and 
the  hopes  of  \ictory,  clapping  spurs  to  their  willing 
steeds,  brandishing  their  whips,  and  cheering  them 
with  their  cries." 

The  first  Arab  horse  imported  into  Britain,  of 
which  we  have  certain  knowledge,  was  presented  by 
Alexander  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  to  the  Church  of  St. 
Andrew's,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Richard  I.  im- 
ported two  eastern  horses,  probably  on  his  return 
from  the  Crusades.  Their  names  were  Favell  and 
Lyard,  and  their  qualities  are  thus  set  forth  in  Ellis' 
Metrical  Romances: 

"In  the  world  was  not  their  peer, 

Dromedary,  not  destrere1 
Steed,  rabite,  ne  camayl, 

That  ran  so  swift  sans  fail. 
For  a  thousand  pounds  of  gold, 

Should  not  that  one  be  sold." 

Edward  I.  brought  horses  from  the  East.  One  of 
the  accusations  against  the  Templars  was  that,  in  vio- 

1  Destrere  steed,  a  war-horse- 


64  THE   HORSE 

lation  of  their  vows  of  poverty  and  frugality,  they 
maintained  "eastern  horses,  dogs  and  birds  for  the 
chase  and  falconry,  and  other  vain  and  worldly  pleas- 
ures." Youatt  narrates  that  Edward  II.  purchased 
thirty  war-horses  and  twelve  heavy  draft -horses. 
Edward  III.  devoted  one  thousand  marks  to  the  pur- 
chase of  fifty  Spanish  horses,  and  he  prized  them  so 
highly  that  he  made  formal  application  to  the  kings 
of  France  and  Spain  to  grant  safe  conduct  to  the  troop. 
In  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  laws  were  made  regu- 
lating the  price  of  horses  and  prohibiting  their  expor- 
tation. Similar  regulations  were  enforced  by  other 
English  sovereigns,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
it  was  decreed  that  no  stallion  should  be  suffered  to 
run  at  large  on  any  waste  or  common,  where  the 
animals  pastured  and  were  of  course  liable  to  breed 
promiscuously,  under  the  height  of  fifteen  hands,  on 
pain  of  forfeiture;  and  that  all  foals,  fillies  or  mares 
likely  to  breed  undersized  or  ill -shaped  produce  should 
be  killed  and  buried.  He  also,  by  law,  compelled  all 
the  nobility,  gentry  and  higher  order  of  the  clergy  to 
keep  a  number  of  horses  proportionate  to  their  rank. 
In  Henry's  reign,  also,  an  enactment  was  enforced 
compelling  the  maintenance  of  a  great  number  of  full- 
sized  mares  and  stallions  in  every  deer  park,  and  in 
every  rural  parish  in  the  realm.  These  enactments 
could  not  fail  to  result  in  the  great  improvement  of 
the  horses  of  England.  At  that  period  an  annual  race 
was  run  at  Chester.  The  prize  was  a  wooden  ball 
embellished  with  flowers,  fixed  upon  the  point  of  a 
lance.  These  trophies  were  provided  by  the  company 


THE  THOROUGHBRED  •   65 

of  saddlers.  In  the  year  1540  a  silver  bell  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  former  prize,  under  the  title  of  "St. 
George's  Bell."  Hence  the  common  phrase  to  "bear 
the  bell,"  as  equivalent  to  being  the  victor. 

King  James  I.  purchased  Markham's  Arabian  horse 
at  the  price  of  five  hundred  pounds.  Race  meetings 
were  now  regularly  held  at  various  places  in  the 
kingdom,  and  a  well-ordered  system  of  training  the 
horses,  and  of  running  according  to  weight,  age  and 
distance  was  introduced.  Pedigrees  were  kept,  the 
best  and  stoutest  horses  and  mares  were  reserved  for 
breeding,  and  their  progeny  were  for  the  most  part 
set  aside  for  racing  purposes.  Misson,  who  traveled 
in  England  about  the  year  1641,  writes:  "The  English 
nobility  take  great  delight  in  horse  races.  The  most 
famous  are  usually  at  Newmarket,  and  there  you  are 
sure  to  see  a  great  many  persons  of  the  first  quality, 
and  almost  all  the  gentlemen  of  the  neighborhood.  It 
is  pretty  common  for  them  to  lay  wagers  of  two  thou- 
sand pounds  sterling  upon  one  race." 

Though  for  nearly  a  century  the  best  horsemen  of 
England  and  America  have  held  the  thoroughbred 
horse  to  be  no  longer  susceptible  of  improvement  by 
a  further  infusion  of  Oriental  blood,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  very  little  of  his  blood  that  is 
not  of  the  Arabian,  Barb  or  Turk.  In  the  year  1730 
it  is  known  that  the  following  named  foreign  horses 
of  note  were  in  the  stud  in  England:  The  Alcock 
Arabian,  the  Godolphin  Arabian,  the  Bloody  But- 
tocks Arabian,  Hall's  Arabian,  the  Bloody  Shoul- 
dered Arabian,  Johnson's  Turk,  the  Belgrade  Turk, 


66  THE    HORSE 

Litton's  Arabian,  the  Bethel  Arabian,  Matthew's 
Persian,  Lord  Burlington's  Barb,  Nottingham's  Ara- 
bian, Crofts'  Egyptian  horse,  Newton's  Arabian,  the 
Cypress  Arabian,  Pigott's  Turk,  the  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire's Arabian,  Strickland's  Arabian,  Greyhound,  a 
Barb,  Wynn's  Arabian,  Hampton  Court  Grey  Barb 
and  Dodsworth,  a  Barb. 

When  the  Puritan  sect  arose  in  England,  they  were 
violently  opposed  to  horse-racing  as  a  sinful  pleasure, 
and  those  coming  to  New  England  carried  with  them 
that  belief.  In  all  the  other  early  English  settlements 
a  contrary  view  prevailed.  Race -courses  were  soon 
established  at  Long  Island,  Richmond,  Charleston  and 
other  points,  and  the  rich  planters  imported  English 
thoroughbreds  and  raced  them.  The  passion  for  rac- 
ing among  the  landed  gentry  of  Maryland,  Virginia 
and  South  Carolina  was  as  strong  as  in  the  mother 
country.  Many  of  our  early  statesmen  kept  race- 
horses; notable  among  them  were  General  Washing- 
ton, General  Jackson,  Henry  Clay,  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  John  Randolph.  With  Jackson,  racing  was  a 
passion  and  he  actually  loved  a  race -horse.  Until 
broken  by  age,  his  commanding  figure  was  conspicu- 
ous at  all  the  great  southern  courses.  Among  the 
earliest  thoroughbred  stallions  brought  to  America  was 
Brilliant,  imported  into  Virginia  in  1706.  He  was 
foaled  in  1691,  and  was  by  Phenomenon,  dam  by  Paco- 
let,  grand -dam  by  Matchem,  great -grand -dam  by 
Oroonoka,  and  great -great -grand -dam  by  Traveller, 
etc.  Previous  to  the  Revolution,  a  great  many  impor- 
tations had  been  made  and  many  native  breeding 


THE  THOROUGHBRED 


67 


establishments  existed.  As  a  fixed  institution,  until 
about  the  year  1800,  racing  was  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  states  of  Maryland,  Virginia  and  South 
Carolina.  Nearly  all  of  the  horses  imported  into 
those  states  were  descendants  of  the  Godolphin  Ara- 
bian, the  Byerly  Turk,  Spanker,  Greyhound,  the 


FIG.  8.    Thoroughbred 

White  Turk,  Dodsworth,  and  Layton's  Violet  Barb 
mare.  Herbert  notes  the  fact  that  early  American 
thoroughbreds  ran  through  fewer  generations  to 
reach  their  Oriental  parentage  on  both  sides  than  the 
generality  of  English  horses  of  the  same  date,  and 
more  fully  showed  the  Arab  and  Barb  or  Turk  char- 
teristics  in  height,  figure  arid  qualities.  In  1829  was 
begun  the  first  publication  of  a  work  for  recording 


68  THE    HORSE 

the  pedigrees  and  performances  of  the  race -horse  in 
America.  Since  that  time  stud-books  have  been  main- 
tained in  which  the  pedigrees  of  all  American  thor- 
oughbreds may  be  found.  Throughout  the  last  cen- 
tury English  thoroughbreds  have  been  imported  and 
crossed  with  our  own  stock  till  at  this  time  the  blood 
in  both  countries  is  the  same,  and  the  turf  contests 
between  English  and  American  horses,  here  and  in 
England,  show  that  in  racing  qualities  they  are  equal. 
At  this  time  English  horses  are  being  constantly  im- 
ported and  American  thoroughbreds  are  raced  on  all 
the  courses  in  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  asserted  that 
the  race -horse  has  deteriorated,  but  this  opinion  is 
not  held  by  intelligent  breeders  and  turfmen.  Though 
races  at  distances  above  two  miles  are  not  now  in 
fashion,  it  is  but  a  few  years  since  the  fastest  four- 
mile  record  was  made,  also  the  fastest  for  one  and 
two  miles.  A  recent  writer  thus  contrasts  early  ra- 
cing with  that  of  the  present  day.  "In  old  times  horses 
ran  seldom — often  not  more  than  five  or  six  races  in 
a  year — often  less.  The  races  were  over  longer  dis- 
tances, but  they  were  specially  prepared  for  them, 
and,  as  handicaps  were  few,  the  best  horse  had  a 
pretty  easy  time.  Besides,  the  number  of  horses  was 
small.  The  returns  of  1880  showed  six  hundred  and 
forty  foals.  In  1900  as  many  as  three  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  twenty -seven  were  reported  to  the  Jockey 
Club.  A  good  horse  of  today  runs  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  races  in  a  season,  meeting  a  large  number  of 
competitors,  and  is  asked  to  concede  weight,  and  is 
kept  in  training  fully  nine  months  in  the  year.  If 


THE   THOROUGHBRED  69 

time  is  any  criterion,  there  is  no  comparison  between 
the  horses  of  today  and  those  of  former  years." 

While  the  most  general  use  of  the  thoroughbred 
horse  now  is  for  racing,  it  is  true  that  he  is  capable 
of  a  much  extended  utility.  As  a  cavalry -horse  a 
stout  thoroughbred  cannot  be  excelled.  In  pursuit 
or  retreat  his  speed  and  endurance  make  him  superior 
to  all  others.  In  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  where  the 
thoroughbred  is  more  common,  he  is  often  found  doing 
excellent  service  as  a  driver  and  as  a  saddle-horse, 
and  sometimes  even  in  the  cart  or  at  the  plow.  Race- 
horses that  have  been  broken  down  on  the  tracks 
around  New  York  City  are  sold  and  put  to  all  manner 
of  uses.  In  a  fine  carriage  team  at  Woodburn  Farm 
a  few  years  ago  was  a  thoroughbred  gelding  whose 
mate  was  a  standard  trotter.  Colonel  Brodhead  declared 
the  former  to  be  far  the  best  carriage -horse  of  the 
two.  The  favorite  driving  horse  of  the  wife  of  Gov- 
ernor Stanford  was  a  thoroughbred  son  of  Don 
Victor. 

It  can  be  truthfully  said  that  the  blood-horse  has 
almost  reached  the  highest  state  of  possible  improve- 
ment, and  is  the  most  perfect  of  the  horse  kind.  For 
beauty,  intelligence,  courage,  speed  and  endurance 
nothing  approaches  him.  The  tribute  of  Job  justly  is 
his  : 

"Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  ?  hast  thou  clothed  his 
neck  with  thunder? 

Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper  ?  the  glory 
of  his  nostrils  is  terrible. 

He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength:  he 
goeth  on  to  meet  the  armed  men. 


70  THE    HORSE 

He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  affrighted;  neither  turneth 
he  back  from  the  sword. 

The  quiver  rattleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear  and 
the  shield. 

He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage ;  neither 
believeth  he  that  it  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet. 

He  saith  among  the  trumpets,  ha,  ha  !  and  he  smelleth  the 
battle  afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the  shouting." 

THE   TROTTING   HORSE 

The  trotting  gait  is  natural  to  nearly  all  kinds  of 
domestic  animals,  and  also  to  many  wild  varieties,  as 
the  deer,  the  elk,  the  wolf.  The  wild  horses  on  the 
plains  of  South  America  and  on  our  western  prairies 
go  at  a  trot  when  moving  neither  very  slowly  nor  at 
full  speed.  It  is  definitely  known  that  since  Greek  and 
Roman  times  trotting  has  been  the  ordinary  gait  of 
the  domesticated  horse.  Some  exceptions  should  be 
mentioned.  At  an  early  date  in  England,  fully  six 
hundred  years  ago,  ambling -horses  were  in  use  chiefly 
for  women  to  ride.  "Uppon  an  amblere  esely  sche  sat" 
(Chaucer).  We  would  now  call  them  racking  or  pacing 
ponies,  as  their  gait  was  a  slow,  irregular  pace,  or  what 
was  called,  previous  to  the  last  forty  years,  a  rack,  and 
the  horse  in  England,  until  as  late  as  the  year  1500, 
was  rarely  above  thirteen  hands. 

As,  in  later  times,  riding  on  horseback  by  women 
ceased  as  a  custom,  the  ambler,  racker  or  pacer  went 
out  of  use  and  is  not  now  found  anywhere  in  England. 
The  trotting -horse  there  completely  occupies  the  field 
for  riding,  drawing  coaches  and  light  vehicles.  Within 


THE    TROTTER  71 

the  last  twenty  years,  trotting  races  have  become  very 
popular  in  England,  France,  Italy,  Austria  and  Russia, 
and  breeding  farms  for  trotters  have  been  established 
in  all  of  those  countries.  A  large  number  of  fast 
trotters  have  been  purchased  in  the  United  States  and 
taken  to  Europe  for  use  on  track  and  in  the  stud.  The 
races  there  are  for  longer  distances  than  prevail  here, 
being  from  one-  to  five -mile  heats.  The  custom  could 
well  be  followed  on  American  tracks,  as  it  tends  to 
produce  horses  of  greater  endurance  on  the  track  and 
on  the  road.  The  English  riding -horse  goes  at  the 
walk,  trot  and  canter.  No  other  gait  is  tolerated. 

That  the  ambler  or  pacer  in  England  should  dis- 
appear where  it  was  no  longer  desired,  was  the  result 
of  a  natural  law.  His  origin  was  due  to  breeding  and 
training,  and  when  all  efforts  in  that  direction  ceased 
his  extinction  followed.  English  books  on  the  horse, 
published  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago,  contain 
cuts  of  horses  being  trained  to  amble,  rack  or  pace 
by  the  use  of  mechanical  devices,  such  as  ropes  on 
the  legs,  iron  balls  tied  to  the  ankles  and  obstructions 
placed  on  the  ground.  In  America,  until  within  the 
last  century,  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  and 
the  absence  of  wagon-roads  made  horseback -riding  the 
usual  mode  of  travel,  and,  for  that  reason,  horses  were 
desired  possessing  an  easier  gait  under  saddle  than 
trotting.  This  made  an  extensive  demand  for  the  racker 
or  broken -gaited  horse.  Aside  from  training,  the  use 
of  a  horse  as  a  saddler,  on  rough  roads,  naturally 
tends  to  impair  the  purity  of  his  gait  as  a  trotter,  as 
that  gait  is  less  comfortable  to  both  himself  and  his 


72 


THE    HORSE 


rider.    In  localities  where  saddle-horses  are  needed  it  is 

a  common  thing  to  see  horses  which,  when  ridden,  go  at 

all  the  saddle  gaits,  but  when  driven  are  square  trotters. 

Changed  conditions  in  America  have  now  made  the 


FlG.  9.    Lou  Dillon,  1:58%,  holder  of  the  world's  trotting  record 

saddle-horse  chiefly  of  use  for  pleasure,  and  the  trotter 
overshadows  him  in  importance. 

For  racing  purposes  the  trotting -horse  has  a  rival 
in  America  in  the  modern  pacer,  a  variety  that  has 
been  vastly  improved  within  the  past  twenty -five  years. 
(Reference  is  made  to  what  is  given  under  the  heading, 
"The  Pacing  Horse.") 

While  the  trotting -horse   had  reached  a  degree  of 


THE  TROTTER  73 

excellence  in  England  and  on  the  continent  nearly  two 
centuries  ago,  and  was  capable  of  maintaining  a  con- 
siderable rate  of  speed  in  races  of  from  four  to  twenty 
miles,  up  to  the  year  1806,  no  trotting -horses  in 
Europe  or  America  had  taken  a  record  of  a  mile  in  less 
than  three  minutes.  In  that  year  the  horse  Yankee 
took  a  record,  on  a  half-mile  track,  of  2:59,  at  Harlem, 
N.  Y.  The  record  was  gradually  lowered,  but  thirty- 
nine  years  passed  before  any  horse  trotted  a  mile  in 
2:30.  In  1845,  the  gray  mare  Lady  Suffolk  won  a 
race  on  Beacon  Course,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  trotting  in 
2:29%.  The  first  trotter  to  beat  2:20  was  Flora  Temple, 
who  took  a  record  of  2:19%,  in  1859,  at  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.  Following  are  the  notable  reductions  of  the 
trotting  record  since  that  time: 

Dexter,  2:17%,  in  1867. 

Goldsmith  Maid,  2:14,  in  1874. 

Rarus,  2:13%,  in  1878. 

St.  Julien,  2:12%,  in  1879. 

Jay  Eye  See,  2:10,  in  1884. 

Maud  S.,  2:08%,  in  1885. 

Sunol  (a  three-year  old),  2:10%,  in  1889. 

Nancy  Hanks,  2:04%,  in  1892. 

Alix,  2:03%,  in  1894. 

The  Abbot,  2:03%,  in  1900. 

Cresceus,  2:02%,  in  ]902. 

Major  Delmar,  1:  59%,  in  1903. 

Lou  Dillon,  1:  58%,  in  1903. 

The  great  increase  in  the  speed  of  the  trotting -horse 
is  striking  evidence  of  what  may  be  done  by  intelligent 
breeding  and  training,  but  it  must  not  be  thought  that 
the  records  of  Yankee,  2:59,  in  1806;  Lady  Suffolk, 
2:29%,  in  1845,  and  Lou  Dillon,  1:58%,  (Fig.  9)  in 


74  THE    HORSE 

1903,  constitute  a  true  measure  of  the  increase  of  speed 
in  the  trotter.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  great 
improvement  has  been  made  in  tracks,  sulkies,  harness 
and  all  the  equipments  of  the  fast  trotter.  The  per- 
formance of  Lady  Suffolk  in  trotting  a  mile  in  2:29%, 
in  1845,  was  fully  equal  to  a  mile  in  2:15  under  present 
conditions.  When  Maud  S.  took  her  record  of  2:08%, 
in  1885,  she  drew  an  old-fashioned  high-wheeled  sulky, 
on  a  regulation  track;  a  feat  that  stood  unmatched 
for  nearly  twenty  years.  In  1891,  Sunol,  by  Electioneer, 
trotted  a  mile  to  a  high- wheeled  sulky  in  2:08%,  but 
it  was  done  on  a  kite-shaped  track,  which  some  horse- 
men believe  to  be  a  shade  faster  than  the  oval,  when 
attempts  are  made  at  extreme  speed.  The  stallion 
Palo  Alto,  also  by  Electioneer,  took  his  record  of  2:08% 
to  a  high-wheeled  sulky,  but  this  performance,  like  that 
of  Sunol,  was  on  a  kite-shaped  track.  Sunol,  Maud  S., 
Palo  Alto,  Cresceus  Major  Delrnar  and  Lou  Dillon 
mark  the  highest  development  of  speed  of  the  trotter. 
The  progress  in  breeding  has  been  steadily  upward. 
Though  so  much  has  been  accomplished,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  there  has  yet  been  produced  a  breed  of 
trotters  in  the  sense  that  the  thoroughbred  horse, 
the  setter  and  collie  dog,  and  the  game  and  Dork- 
ing chicken,  are  ranked  as  breeds.  This  is  due  to 
the  comparatively  late  period  of  the  commencement 
of  anything  like  a  systematic  effort  to  establish  a 
breed,  and  to  the  irrational  methods  of  many  breeders. 
A  striking  illustration  of  this  proposition  is  the 
fact  that  the  National  Trotting  Horse  Breeders' 
Association  for  years  had  rules  which  admitted  for 


THE   TROTTER 


75 


FIG.  10.     Cresceus,  2:02% 

registry,  as  standard  trotters,  animals  that  neither 
trotted  nor  had  a  trotter  for  sire  or  dam.  A  record  at 
pacing  or  having  a  sire  or  dam  with  pacing  records 
entitled  an  animal  to  admission  to  the  trotting  standard. 
As  well  admit  a  Jersey  cow  with  a  certain  milk  or 


76  THE   HORSE 


butter  record  to  registry  in  the  Shorthorn  Herd  -book. 
Years  ago  the  folly  of  such  action  was  seen  and  the 
rule  was  abrogated,  but,  while  it  stood,  hundreds  of 
short-sighted  breeders  fell  into  the  delusion  and  used 
pacing  sires  and  dams  in  the  vain  hope  of  producing 
fast  trotters.  The  fallacy  of  it  is  now  so  clearly  seen 
that  no  breeder  of  intelligence  is  misled  by  it. 

All  rules  may  have  exceptions,  but  the  general  rule 
that  "Like  produces  like  or  the  likeness  of  some 
ancestor,"  is  as  well  settled  as  is  the  truth  of  the  multi- 
plication table.  A  number  of  breeders  of  exceptional 
ability  and  exceptional  opportunities  have  had  phenom- 
enal success  in  some  seeming  departures  from  the 
principle  of  this  rule,  as  Governor  Stanford  in  his  use 
of  Electioneer  upon  thoroughbred  mares,  but  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  in  his  power  to  impart  the  trotting 
gait  to  his  progeny,  Electioneer  stands  alone.  The  fact 
is  also  important  that  Governor  Stanford  had  a  very 
large  number  of  thoroughbred  mares  from  which  he 
selected  those  which  he  bred  to  Electioneer.  In  choos- 
ing them  he  thoughtfully  looked  to  the  question  of 
size,  conformation,  disposition  and  gait,  regarding  the 
last  two  qualities  as  of  the  utmost  importance.  He 
saw  clearly  certain  deficiencies  in  the  trotter  which  he 
believed  would  be  remedied  by  a  thoroughbred  cross, 
and  the  production  of  Sunol,  Palo  Alto  and  Arion 
justified  his  theory;  the  first  two  having  thoroughbred 
dams,  and  the  dam  of  the  last  being  also  very  highly 
bred.  The  same  thing  has  been  done  by  Senator  Rose, 
and  Mr.  Alexander,  of  Woodburn  Farm.  The  young 
breeder  may  ask,  Was  not  this  a  departure  from  the 


THE   TROTTER  77 

rule  that  like  produces  like!  I  answer,  No.  The 
trotter  lacked  certain  qualities,  or  did  not  have  them 
to  the  degree  found  in  the  thoroughbred,  among  which 
were  courage,  or  never -say -die  gameness,  such  as  has 
made  a  racer  run  out  a  finish  on  a  broken  leg,  sound- 
ness of  limb,  the  perfection  of  lung  and  heart  action 
and  intelligence. 

All  these  are  essential  in  the  make-up  of  the  fast 
trotter,  and  the  resort  to  the  blood  of  the  thoroughbred 
to  get  them  was  but  an  intelligent  application  of  the 
great  rule  in  breeding.  The  rule  to  guide  the  average 
breeder  in  the  production  of  a  trotter  is  to  breed  a 
fast  trotting-mare  to  a  fast  trotting-stallion.  Many 
other  things  should  be  considered  to  insure  desirable 
qualities  aside  from  mere  speed,  among  which  are  purity 
of  gait,  size,  beauty,  color,  soundness,  disposition,  etc. 
It  is  but  stating  the  rule  in  another  form  to  say,'  have 
in  the  sire  and  dam  the  qualities  you  wish  in  the  foal. 
Unsoundness  of  every  form  should  be  avoided,  as  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  unsoundness  is  hereditary  and 
will  reappear  in  the  progeny,  and  in  the  tenth  case  the 
weakness  that  produced  it  is  probably  due  to  inheri- 
tance. Contracted  feet,  in  a  given  case,  may  be  im- 
mediately due  to  neglect  or  bad  shoeing,  while  the 
primary  cause  is  a  natural  tendency  to  that  infirmity, 
inherited  from  sire  or  dam.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
crooked  or  curby  hocks,  spavins,  ring-bones  and  other 
forms  of  unsoundness.  No  one  can  afford  to  use 
animals  so  affected  for  breeding  purposes,  no  matter 
how  desirable  they  may  be  in  other  respects;  as  vices 
and  defects  are  more  easily  reproduced  than  good 


78  THE    HORSE 

qualities.  Above  nearly  all  things,  choose  for  both  sire 
and  dam,  a  pure-gaited  trotter,  for  the  gait  of  the  ideal 
trotting -horse  is  as  the  swing  of  the  pendulum.  A 
trotter  should  carry  his  toe -weights  in  his  head.  When 
Lou  Dillon  trotted  a  mile  in  1:58%  she  covered  more 
than  forty -four  and  a  half  feet  to  the  second.  How 
plainly  this  points  to  the  importance  of  perfect  trotting 
action!  The  foregoing  rules  apply  not  only  to  the 
breeding  of  trotters  for  the  track,  but  for  all  purposes. 
The  farmer,  mechanic  or  other  man  of  small  means,  not 
a  professional  breeder,  cannot  expect,  with  his  limited 
opportunities,  to  produce  grand  circuit  flyers,  for  under 
the  best  conditions  they  are  accidents;  but  by  adherence 
to  the  course  here  given  he  can  breed,  with  reasonable 
certainty,  handsome,  sound  and  speedy  trotters  for 
carriage  and  light  wagon,  and  also  desirable  coachers. 
Horses  of  this  kind  should  be  of  good  color, — bay, 
brown,  black  or  sorrel.  As  a  rule,  bay  or  brown  horses 
command  the  best  prices;  grays  and  roans  do  not  sell 
well.  Beauty  and  style  of  movement  are  qualities 
highly  prized.  Roadsters  and  coachers  should  have  a 
higher,  bolder  action  in  front  than  is  usually  found  in 
the  fast  trotter;  and  this  quality,  like  all  others,  should 
be  sought  in  the  sire  and  the  dam. 

THE   PACING -HORSE 

Regarding  the  origin  and  history  of  the  pacer 
previous  to  the  last  thirty  years,  nothing  need  be 
said  additional  to  what  is  given  in  the  pages  devoted 
to  the  trotter.  Until  a  comparatively  recent  period, 


THE   PACER  79 

pacers  were  chiefly  used  for  saddle  purposes.  It 
sometimes  happened  that  individual  animals  showed 
much  speed,  and,  when  possessed  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  blood  of  the  thoroughbred  horse,  had 
the  stamina  and  bottom  to  go  races  of  one-,  two- 
and  three-mile  heats.  However,  for  racing  purposes 
the  pacer  played  an  unimportant  part,  and  when 
horse -back  riding  ceased  as  a  custom,  pacers  were 
rarely  seen.  Persons  unskilled  in  horsemanship  may 
wonder  that  pacers  should  not  meet  the  requirements 
for  road -horses,  both  for  pleasure  and  utility.  For 
this  there  are  many  substantial  reasons.  For  mere 
speed  on  a  track,  or  very  smooth  road,  the  pace  is  a 
shade  faster  than  the  trot.  This  is  the  only  thing 
that  can  be  said  in  favor  of  the  pacer  as  a  driver. 
In  no  other  quality  can  he  rank  with  the  trotter.  In 
considering  him  as  a  horse  for  pleasure-driving,  it 
should  be  observed  that  as  a  type  he  lacks  beauty  of 
form,  having,  as  a  rule,  poorer  quarters  and  a  ten- 
dency to  upright  shoulders  and  a  sloping  rump.  He 
does  not  often  have  a  proud  carriage  of  the  tail,  and 
goes  with  a  low  head.  In  general  bodily  conforma- 
tion he  is  decidedly  inferior  to  the  trotter.  The  high, 
bold  action  which  so  charms  the  eye  is  impossible  to 
the  pacing  movement.  A  pair  of  pacers  as  coachers 
would  be  an  absurdity.  It  may  be  asked  why  pacers 
would  not  do  for  the  saddle.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  old-fashioned  pacer  or  racker,  once  popular 
as  a  riding- horse,  had  a  broken  gait  like  some  of  the 
easy  movements  of  the  modern  saddle -gaited  horse. 
The  present-day  pacer  has  a  true  pacing  gait,  and  is 


80  THE   HORSE 

the  worst  possible  horse  under  saddle.  These  con- 
siderations have  such  weight  in  the  judgment  of 
horse -owners  that  the  porportion  of  trotters  to  pacers 
throughout  the  United  States  is  fully  one  hundred  to 
one;  this,  notwithstanding  the  general  prevalency  of 
pacing  on  the  race -tracks. 

Within  the  last  twenty-five  years  great  advances 
have  been  made  by  pacing -horse  breeders,  and  an 
animal  has  been  produced  with  which  the  old-time 
pacer  is  not  worthy  of  comparison.  These  breeders 
had  in  mind  the  creation  of  a  type  of  fast  and  game 
pacers  for  racing  on  the  track.  This  was  the  chief 
purpose  they  had  in  view,  and  their  wisdom  is  shown 
by  their  success.  They  did  not  attempt  to  make  of 
the  pacer  a  road-  or  general  driving -horse,  or  a 
saddler,  but  aimed  solely  at  his  improvement  as  a 
racing  animal.  As  a  result  the  pacing  record  has 
been  lowered  below  the  two -minute  mark  by  the  follow- 
ing named  horses:  Dan  Patch,  1:56,  by  Joe  Patchen, 
2:01%,  Prince  Alert,  1:57,  and  Star  Pointer,  1:59%, 
by  Brown  Hal,  2:12%.  Among  pacers  whose 
records  are  close  to  two  minutes  are  Little  Boy, 
2:01%;  Anaconda,  2:01%;  Coney,  2:02,  and  a  great 
many  others. 

An  analysis  of  the  pedigrees  of  the  great  pacers 
will  show  that  the  highest  results  have  come  from  the 
use  of  sires  that  were  themselves  fast  pacers.  The  rule 
of  intelligent  breeders  is  to  have  for  both  sire  and 
dam  pure-gaited  pacers  with  speed  and  endurance. 
Soundness  and  other  plainly  necessary  qualities  are, 
of  course,  not  ignored. 


82  THE    HORSE 

It  is  true  that  the  fast  pacer  of  to-day  carries  a 
large  proportion  of  the  blood  of  the  thoroughbred, 
which  is  an  indispensable  part  of  his  make-up,  but 
no  breeder  would  now  resort  to  a  further  thorough- 
bred cross.  At  one  time  a  class  of  theorists  advo- 
cated the  production  of  fast  trotters  and  pacers  by  a 
continual  crossing  of  trotters  and  pacers,  but  it  is 
now  only  remembered  as  an  amusing  vagary.  As  an 
illustration  of  what  follies  a  spirit  of  controversy  may 
lead  an  otherwise  sane  man  into,  the  case  may  be 
cited  of  a  prominent  writer  on  breeding  topics  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  ago,  who  used  to  argue  that  pacing 
and  trotting  were  "two  different  manifestations  of  the 
same  gait." 

While  all  must  admit  the  success  of  the  effort  to 
breed  fast  pacers  for  the  track,  it  cannot  be  con- 
tended that  in  point  of  usefulness  it  could  not  claim 
higher  credit  were  the  pacer  more  suited  to  the  gen- 
eral wants  of  the  people.  The  highest  art  of  the 
breeder  may  alike  be  shown  in  the  production  of 
tumbler  pigeons  and  beef  cattle,  while  the  importance 
of  the  work  will  allow  of  no  comparison.  A  parallel 
is  found  in  the  vast  rivalry  among  naval  architects 
in  the  endeavor  to  produce  the  fastest  sailing  yacht 
whose  use  is  confined  to  the  cup  races. 

It  seems  to  be  demonstrated  that  the  pace  is  nat- 
urally a  faster  gait  than  the  trot,  to  the  extent  of 
several  seconds  in  the  mile.  The  reason  for  this  is  an 
interesting  question.  The  record  of  Dan  Patch  (Fig. 
12),  the  champion  pacer,  is  1:56,  while  that  of  Lou 
Dillon,  the  fastest  trotter,  is  1:58%,  two  and  a  half 


THE   PACER 


83 


seconds  slower.  Most  horsemen  will  agree  that  there 
is  that  amount  of  difference  in  the  natural  speed 
of  the  two  methods  of  locomotion.  The  mechanical 
difference  is  that  the  pacer  at  speed  strikes  the  ground 


By  permission  of  L.  N.  Lfgendre,  photographer.  New  York 

FIG.  12.     Dan  Patch,  1:56 
Holder  of  the  world's  pacing  record 

simultaneously  with  the  fore  and  hind  feet  on 
the  same  side,  while  the  trotter  puts  them  down 
alternately.  Instantaneous  photographs  of  trotters 
at  speed  show  that  no  two  feet  are  on  the  ground 
at  the  same  time.  From  these  considerations  it 
seems  clear  that  in  the  pacing  movement  the  play 


84  THE    HORSE 

of  the  muscles  is  more  smooth  and  free,  thus  conduc- 
ing to  increased  speed.  This  greater  freedom  and 
harmony  of  muscular  action  is  probably  an  important 
factor.  The  pacer  also  has  an  advantage  in  the  sim- 
ultaneous planting  of  both  feet  on  the  same  side,  for 
the  reason  that  he  can  make  the  freest  possible  stride 
without  fear  of  the  hind  foot  catching  the  front  one. 
A  great  danger  to  a  trotting -horse  in  racing  is  the 
cutting  of  his  quarters  by  treading  on  them  with  the 
hind  foot,  and  the  horse  knows  it.  When  the  animal 
is  propelling  his  body  forward  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  forty  feet  to  the  second,  the  interval  between 
the  raising  of  the  fore  foot  and  the  following  move- 
ment of  the  hind  foot  is  but  the  flash  of  an  eye.  A 
man  when  running  very  swiftly  instinctively  exercises 
his  utmost  alertness  to  guard  against  a  fall.  Is  it  not 
reasonable  to  believe  that  a  trotter  when  going  twice 
as  fast  may  also  feel  the  necessity  from  his  more 
complicated  gait  of  modifying  his  speed  in  a  degree, 
for  self  protection!  These  observations  are  not  based 
on  the  ideas  expressed  by  other  writers,  but  it  is 
believed  they  give  the  most  rational  way  of  account- 
ing for  the  difference  in  speed  between  the  pacer  and 
the  trotter. 

It  may  be  thought  by  some  that  the  pacer  may 
ultimately  become  popular  as  a  driver  when,  by 
reason  of  the  country  being  older,  our  highways  will 
be  improved.  This  is  very  unlikely  to  occur,  as  in 
European  countries  having  the  finest  possible  roads 
he  is  practically  unknown. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  has  become  quite  prev- 


THE   PACER  85 

alent  the  reprehensible  practice  of  driving  horses 
wearing  hopples  in  pacing  races.  Broken -gaited 
horses  that  will  neither  pace  nor  trot  naturally,  but 
have  some  speed,  will  be  put  in  strong  leather  hop- 
ples, where  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  go  at  any 
other  gait  than  the  pace,  and  in  that  way  compelled 
to  pace,  often  being  unmercifully  punished  the  greater 
part  of  the  course.  This  practice  should  be  prohibited 
by  law.  On  many  race -courses  hoppled  horses  are 
not  allowed  to  compete.  It  is  very  dangerous  to 
drivers,  as  a  tired  horse  in  hopples  is  liable  to  fall. 
Numerous  deaths  of  men  and  horses  have  occurred 
from  such  accidents.  It  is  also  injurious  to  the  breed- 
ing interests,  for  many  foul -gaited  pacing  stallions 
have  taken  low  records  while  driven  in  hopples,  which 
are  worthless  for  breeding  purposes.  They  may  be 
taken  to  places  where  they  are  unknown  and  acquire 
custom  in  the  stud  on  the  strength  of  a  record  which 
is,  in  reality,  fraudulent. 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE  AMERICAN   SADDLER 

Adapted    largely    from    the    best    modern    authorities    on    "The 
American  Saddler,"  for  use  *in  the  class-room. 

THE  first  use  made  of  the  horse  by  man  was  for 
riding  bareback.  Later  he  was  furnished  with  the 
saddle.  This  noble  animal  was  first  used  in  war  long 
before  he  became  employed  in  peaceful  industry.  Even 
after  he  was  used  in  harness,  his  first  connection  with 
it  was  in  drawing  chariots  of  war.  These  ancient 
war-horses  were  a  great  factor  in  molding  history. 
The  decline  of  Rome  was  partly  due  to  the  horseman- 
ship of  the  Huns,  who  originated  in  the  country 
north  of  the  Chinese  wall,  and  whose  barbaric  hordes 
poured  over  the  Empire.  The  Arabs  were  warlike  and 
conquering  because  of  their  horses;  where  would  the 
Boers  have  been  if  it  were  not  for  their  active  saddle 
ponies? 

Such  has  been  the  association  between  horse  and 
man  for  so  long  a  time  that  it  is  no  wonder  he  should 
have  inherited  a  love  for  the  animal. 

In  the  northern  United  States,  the  winters  are  too 
cold  for  horseback  riding  and  in  summer  the  roads 
are  better  cared  for  than  in  the  South;  hence  road 
horses  became  more  common  than  saddlers  and  the  road 
wagon  more  in  evidence  than  the  saddle.  The  running 

(86) 


FOUNDATION    STOCK    OF    THE    SADDLER  87 

horse,  the  foundation  of  the  saddler,  was  always  a  special 
pet  of  the  southerner,  who  was  not  driven  to  the  use 
of  the  trotter  by  the  strict  puritan  ideas  of  New 
England;  hence  the  South,  particulary  Kentucky,  is 
preeminently  the  home  of  the  American  saddler,  form- 
erly called  the  Kentucky  saddle-horse.  When  the 
pioneers  went  to  that  state,  it  was  a  choice  between 
going  on  horseback  or  on  foot,  and  practically  every- 
body rode.  In  those  old  times  there  were  no  railroads, 
and  the  highways  were  too  poor  for  wheel  vehicles,  so 
that  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  nse  the  saddle 
for  traveling  both  short  and  long  distances.  But  the 
saddlers  of  those  days  were  not  the  high,  stylish 
steppers  of  the  present. 

Some  of  the  best  foundation  horses  came  from 
Canada,  where  the  pace,  or  ambling  gait,  has  been  most 
encouraged;  while  Virginia  and  the  South  Atlantic 
States  have  given  more  attention  to  race-horses.  This 
type  of  Canadian  horses  is  said  to  be  a  cross  of  early 
French  stock  with  stallions  brought  from  New  York 
and  New  England,  and  combined  the  hardiness  and 
perhaps  gait  of  the  former  with  the  better  size 
of  the  latter.  About  1830,  there  were  imported 
into  Kentucky  the  thoroughbred  and  half-bloods 
from  Virginia,  and  a  few  of  the  pacers  from  Can- 
ada. These  were  crossed,  and  produced  a  more  use- 
ful animal  for  saddle  purposes  than  any  bred  there 
before.  It  was  found  that  certain  strains  of  the  thor- 
oughbred blood  made  the  best  cross  with  the  pacers 
or  any  native  strains,  for  the  production  of  horses  with 
saddle  gaits.  Those  which  were  thus  best  suited  for 


88  THE    HORSE 

the  purpose  were  selected  and  bred  in  and  in.  Espe- 
cially distinguished  among  these,  and  today  the  most 
famous,  was  Denmark,  who  had  three  sons  notable 
under  the  saddle  and  winners  in  the  show  ring.  Of 
these,  Games'  Denmark  was  the  best,  and  stands  at  the 
head  of  a  family.  Wherever  his  blood  reached,  fine 
saddle  and  harness  qualities  resulted.  Many  of  the 
best  Canadian  pacers  were  crossed  with  Denmark,  and 
this  mingling  of  thoroughbred,  trotting  blood  and  old 
"side  wheelers"  (pacers)  was  the  foundation  of  the  grace 
and  gaits  of  the  American  saddler.  The  thoroughbred 
alone  is  too  high -mettled,  and  the  other  strains  are 
too  plodding,  and  lacking  in  spirit.  There  are  about  a 
dozen  good  strains,  but  all  "nick"  best  with  the  Den- 
marks,  and  they  in  turn  "nick"  with  certain  strains 
of  the  thoroughbred  or  running -horse.  Denmark  is 
to  the  saddler  what  Rysdzke's  Hambletonian  is  to  the 
trotter.  His  family  is  said  to  be  of  uniformly  good 
size  and  constitution,  of  pleasing  color  and  disposi- 
tion, with  a  fine  high  bearing  and  markedly  prepo- 
tent powers.  Besides  the  Denmark  family,  other  fami- 
lies are  coming  into  use,  such  as  Cabell's  Lexington 
(a  Morgan  strain),  Dremon,  Waxy,  Eureka,  Dillard 
and  others.  CabelPs  Lexington  and  Dremon  were 
progenitors  of  distinct  family  types,  but  both  showed 
their  Canadian  blood  in  their  heavy  manes  and  tails. 
Dremon  and  John  Waxey,  son  of  Waxey,  bore  strong 
resemblance  to  the  Canadian  horse.  With  such  com- 
posite blood,  Kentucky  early  became  famous  for 
saddlers,  which  were  equally  good  for  harness. 

These  horses   are  the  product  of  the   southern  bri- 


KENTUCKY   THE   HOME    OF    THE    SADDLER          89 

die  path,  and  have  been  thoroughly  trained  in  gaits 
most  comfortable  to  the  rider  and  easy  to  the  horse — 
the  walk,  trot,  canter,  running  walk,  fox  trot  and 
slow  pace.  Many  gentlemen  lived  a  good  deal  in  the 
saddle,  and  gaits  which  the  horse  and  rider  could  en- 
dure all  day  were  necessary.  The  abrupt  trot  of  the 
English  hackney  was  not  adapted  to  a  warm  climate, 
since  it  was  hard  on  both  horse  and  rider,  and,  though 
the  "side  wheeler"  had  an  easy  gait,  he  lacked  in  grace, 
hence  the  special  saddle  gaits  were  evolved. 

During  and  following  the  civil  war,  Kentucky  led 
in  the  breeding  of  saddle-horses.  The  superiority  of 
the  southern  horse  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  for  two 
years  during  the  war,  the  northern  cavalry  was  far 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Confederates.  Before  and  after 
the  war,  many  stallions  went  to  Tennessee,  Missouri 
and  Illinois.  Missouri  got  the  most,  and  is  now  nearly 
equal  to  Kentucky  in  the  number  and  quality  of  her 
saddle  horses,  and  many  are  now  also  being  bred  in 
Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Virginia  and  Texas. 

The  first  saddle-horse  came  by  chance  rather  than 
by  design;  but  experience  with  runners  and  trotters 
has  taught  the  Kentuckians  that  to  get  an  animal  to 
be  relied  on  for  a  highly  specialized  use,  it  must  be 
bred  for  that  use.  This  is  a  cardinal  principle  in  sad- 
dle-horse breeding  now,  and,  without  it,  such  breed 
of  gaited  horses  would  be  impossible.  In  1891,  the 
National  (now  American)  Saddle-Horse  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciation was  organized  to  recover  from  the  debris  of 
the  trotting  wreck  the  good  qualities  of  the  saddle. 
The  president  of  the  Association  is  General  John 


90  THE    HORSE 

B.  Castleman,  whose  saddle -mare,  Emily,  took  first 
prize  at  the  World's  Fair  in  1893  and  created  a  sensa- 
tion at  Madison  Square  Garden  a  little  later.  The  third 
volume  of  the  register  has  recently  been  issued. 

So  much  for  the  history  of  the  American  saddler. 
Now  let  us  look  at  the  characteristics  of  this  remark- 
able breed.  They  are  fine  and  harmonious — "all  points" 
and  stylish — are  hardy  and  very  enduring  if  given 
proper  care,  but  are  easy  to  abuse;  docile,  courageous, 
proud  and  good-tempered  if  treated  gently.  They 
instantly  resent  ill-treatment  with  whip  or  spur,  or  by 
a  rough  groom. 

A  first-class  saddle -stallion  should  be  15%  to  1(5% 
hands  high;  in  color,  a  bay,  black,  brown,  red  sor- 
rel and  light  or  dark  chestnut.  The  surpassing  beauty 
and  greatness  of  Denmark  seems  to  be  handed  down 
chiefly  through  his  sons  and  sons  of  sons  of  black 
color.  I  regard  Montrose  (a  bay)  the  pattern  saddle- 
horse  of  the  past  twenty  years;  but  it  has  been  left  to 
Black  Squirrel,  whose  sire  was  Black  Eagle  to  produce 
a  type  distinctly  his  own  and  that  has  never  been 
approached,  except  by  two  of  his  sons,  for  grandeur 
and  beauty.  Dappled  dark  gray  is  allowed,  but  it  is 
not  desired.  The  coat  is  fine  and  silky  and  the 
mane  of  medium  weight — not  too  coarse  or  too  heavy. 
The  tail  comes  out  high  on  the  rump  and  is  carried 
high  with  a  full  sweep.  The  head  is  small  and  fine, 
with  a  mild,  intelligent  expression.  The  eyes  are  not 
deep-set,  but  lively,  without  showing  much  white. 
Ears  erect  and  not  too  far  apart,  and  held  in  place 
without  lopping  while  in  motion.  The  neck  is  arched 


A    GOOD   BUSINESS   HORSE  91 

gracefully  from  deep  oblique  shoulders,  and  the  head 
carried  high  with  perpendicular  face,  yet  without 
breaking  the  line  of  curvature  from  the  withers  to 
the  fore -top.  The  withers  are  narrow  rather  than 
broad  and  flat,  and  rise  gently  from  the  shoulder. 
The  barrel  is  round  and  carried  full  back  to  the  hips 
on  both  top  and  bottom  lines.  The  top  line  is  short 
and  the  bottom  line  relatively  long.  The  legs  are 
unusually  fine,  hard  and  flat  with  smooth  and  not 
too  large  joints.  Pasterns  are  medium  in  length  and 
moderately  oblique,  and  the  feet  are  usually  high  and 
wide  at  the  heel. 

The  southern  saddler  has  been  bred  for  the  rider's 
comfort,  and,  while  he  can  gallop  wityi  a  fine,  open 
stride,  and  jump  well,  his  peculiar  merit  is  in  what 
in  the  North  are  called  artificial  gaits,  but  what  in  the 
South  are  called  natural  gaits.  The  rack  is  the  most 
laborious  to  the  horse  of  all  the  five  gaits  and  no  horse 
can  keep  it  up  for  more  than  a  few  miles  without  great 
fatigue.  The  running,  walkers  cover  six  to  eight  miles 
an  hour  with  great  freedom  from  motion  to  the  rider. 
An  easy  gait  is  necessary  when  the  saddle  takes  the 
place  of  wheels.  Contrary  to  the  general  impression, 
this  gait  is  not  tiresome  to  the  horse,  for  he  can 
go  all  day,  and  every  day,  with  ease.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  gaited  saddlers,  one  a  stylish,  high -headed, 
spirited  animal,  going  "in  the  air,"  and  popular  in 
cities  and  for  park  riding  where  show  is  desired;  the 
other  a  level,  smooth -going,  swift  road-horse  for 
business  men,  doctors,  sheriffs  and  farmers. 

A    first-class    saddle-horse    is    expected    to    go    at 


92 


THE    HORSE 


command,  six  or  eight  different  gaits.  There  are  sev- 
eral fancy  gaits  besides,  which  are  modifications  of  the 
others,  and  depend  upon  the  conformation  of  the  horse 
and  handling  of  the  reins  by  a  skilled  rider.  The  fol- 


PlG.  13.    Montgomery  Chief.    Rhythmical  motion 

lowing  gaits  are  recognized  for  entry  in  the  American 
Saddle  Horse  Register:  walk,  trot,  rack,  canter,  run- 
ning walk,  or  fox  trot,  or  slow  pace.  The  walk,  trot, 
pace  and  canter  need  no  description 

The  fox  trot  is  a  broken  trot  in  which  the  fore 
foot  touches  the  ground  an  instant  in  advance  of  the 
diagonal  hind  foot.  It  has  the  slowest  limits  of  the 


GAITS    OF    THE   SADDLER  93 

artificial  gaits  and  can  be  kept  up  all  day.  It  has 
four  to  six  miles  an  hour  rate,  and  is  the  utility  gait 
of  the  general  saddle-horse,  and  all  are  supposed  to 
have  it.  A  loose  rein  is  always  used,  and  the  horse  is 
apt  to  carry  his  head  low. 

The  running  walk  is  also  a  modification  of  the  trot; 
but  in  this  case  the  head  is  carried  higher,  'and  the 
hind  foot  touches  the  ground  just  in  advance  of  the 
diagonal  forefoot,  breaking  the  concussion.  A  closer  rein 
is  held  than  with  the  fox  trot,  and  the  pace  is  faster, 
even  up  to  a  three -minute  gait,  before  the  horse  is 
forced  out  of  it.  It  is  a  more  showy  gait  than  the 
fcx  trot  and  gives  a  horse  more  of  a  climbing  action 
in  front.  The  feet  take  the  ground  in  the  same  order 
as  a  walk,  and  it  is  a  "walk  on  a  run,"  if  such  a  thing 
is  possible. 

The  rack  is  a  modified  pace  in  which  the  hind  foot 
touches  the  ground  before  the  leading  fore  foot.  It 
has  a  wide  range  of  speed,  from  four  miles  an  hour 
to  a  three -minute  gait.  It  is  suited  to  the  side-saddle 
and  is  a  favorite  with  ladies.  Gentlemen  do  not  like 
it  so  well  as  the  fox  trot,  though  it  makes  a  good 
business  gait.  The  rack  is  not  an  all-day  gait.  It  is 
more  readily  taken  to  by  horses  with  a  pacing  ten- 
dency. 

The  singlefoot  is  intermediate  between  a  trot  and 
a  pace.  Each  foot  moves  independently  of  either  of 
the  others ,.x  and  the  same  interval  of  time  elapses 
between  each  footfall.  It  is  usually  not  less  than  ten 
miles  per  hour,  up  to  a  three -minute  gait.  It  is  the 
smoothest  of  all  gaits,  because  that  part  of  the  body 


94  THE    HORSE 

supporting  the  saddle  glides  evenly  forward,  and  there 
is  no  bounding  or  jolting.  These  four,  with  the  natural 
gaits,  are  the  most  frequently  used. 

To  do  any  of  the  gaits  well,  the  horse  should  have 
what  is  called  "shoulder  action"  as  indicated  by  deep, 
oblique  shoulders.  These  saddle-horses  can  be  taught 
to  go  the  eastern  high -school  gaits  of  the  walk,  trot 
and  canter  type,  if  such  perversion  of  taste  is  desired. 
They  are  also  fine  roadsters  and  do  not  show  thei 
saddle  gaits  in  harness.  Contrary  to  general  impres- 
sions, such  use  does  not  lessen  their  value  as  saddlers 
or  make  them  forget  their  gaits. 

The  Englishman  knows  but  three  gaits  on  the 
road, — the  walk,  trot  and  canter.  But  in  the  South 
the  warm  climate  has  necessitated  the  easier  gaits. 
The  American  saddler  has  not  been  popular  in  New 
York  and  other  eastern  cities.  It  requires  skill 
to  keep  the  gaited  horse,  and  he  is  more  expensive 
than  the  hackney.  The  Englishman  has  the  best 
hunter,  but  the  American  breeds  the  best  saddle- 
horse  in  the  world. 

We  are  now  far  from  using  the  saddle-horse  en- 
tirely for  war.  For  power,  he  is  giving  place  to  steam 
and  electricity;  but,  as  the  world  progresses  and  becomes 
more  wealthy,  the  saddle-horse  will  be  popular  as  the 
most  delightful  means  of  locomotion  and  exercise,  and 
of  peaceful,  restful  and  inspiring  pastime. 

See  page  332  for  illustration  of  "A  saddler  at  rest,"  which  by  over- 
sight was  left  out  of  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE    COACH -HORSE 

So  many  horses  that  do  not  belong  to  the  true  coach- 
horse  type  are  called  "  coachers "  and  bought  and  sold 
as  such  that  it  is  no  wonder  the  farmer  has  no  clear 
conception  of  the  true  "coacher,"  which  always  finds 
a  ready  market  at  long  prices.  If  a  horse  is  16%  hands 
high  or  more,  long  of  neck  and  leg  and  rather  slim 
in  the  body,  he  is  at  once  pronounced  a  "coacher," 
although  he  may  be  nothing  but  an  overgrown  weedy 
carriage -horse.  The  coacher  should  indeed  be  above  the 
average  height  and  should  have  longish  neck  and  legs, 
but  there  are  many  other  qualities  and  characteristics 
which  must  be  possessed  if  the  animal  meets  all  the 
demands  of  the  intelligent  purchaser. 

Perhaps  a  clearer  mental  photograph  of  the  real 
coacher  may  be  secured  if  the  work  which  he  is  called  on 
to  do  in  the  city  is  considered.  It  should  be  remembered, 
first  of  all,  that  coachers  are  designed  for  drawing 
coaches,  not  light  carriages  or  road -wagons.  The  coach 
may  weigh  from  ten  to  fourteen  hundred  pounds  and 
the  load,  six  to  eight  persons,  may  increase  the  weigjat 
by  eight  to  twelve  hundred  pounds.  The  total  weight  of 
eighteen  to  twenty -six  hundred  pounds  is  carried  on 
relatively  small,  rigid  wheels  which  tend  to  greatly 
increase  draft  if  the  roadway  is  roughly  paved.  It  is 

(95) 


96  THE    HORSE 

considered  not  good  form  to  drive  the  genuine  coacher 
fast;  yet  it  is  none  of  our  concern  that  the  coacher  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  means  of  conspicuous  display.  As 
the  coach  rolls  through  the  parks  with  aristocratic  slow- 
ness, the  turnout  reveals  to  the  onlookers  the  wealth  of 
the  occupants,  their  freedom  from  harassing  financial 
solicitude  and  the  enjoyable  leisure  which  so  often 
comes  to  the  American  as  the  fruit  of  a  strenuous  suc- 
cessful business  career. 

Modern  conditions  make  demands  for  two  distinct 
classes  of  high-priced  horses.  In  a  previous  chapter  the 
trotter  and  the  roadster  have  been  fully  treated,  there- 
fore we  may  devote  all  our  attention  to  the  coacher. 
Bear  in  mind  that  these  two  classes  of  horses  approach 
each  other  closely,  and  even  overlap  in  their  less  perfect 
forms. 

The  coacher,  it  has  been  said,  should  be  above  the 
average  height,  with  long,  slim,  flexible  neck  set  on 
the  corner  of  the  body  and  not  on  the  end  of  it,  like 
a  pig's.  The  neck  should  be  all-embracing  where  it 
joins  the  body,  that  both  beauty  and  power  to  hold 
the  head  high  without  fatigue  may  be  secured. 
Horses  with  good  necks  properly  set,  when  moving 
usually  slack  the  check-rein,  if  not  reined  too  high, 
and  will  carry  their  heads  loftily  without  being  checked 
up.  Many  an  otherwise  fine  coacher,  if  checked  high, 
becomes  a  "star  gazer,"  especially  with  an  overdraw,— 
that  is,  extends  the  nose  upward  until  the  face  is 
nearly  in  a  line  with  the  neck;  whereas,  in  a  natural 
and  easy  condition,  the  head  should  be  carried  nearly 
at  a  right  angle  with  the  neck.  It  is  really  cUs- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A    CO  AC  HER  97 

tressing  to  see  an  imperfect  neck  checked  up  far 
above  its  capacity.  This  has  led  to  unqualified  con- 
demnation of  the  overdraw  check  or,  in  fact,  of  checks 
in  any  form.  (For  a  full  discussion  of  harness,  see 
Chapter  XXII.)  If  a  coacher  has  the  ideal  head  and 
neck,  many  slight  deficiencies  of  body  may  be  over- 
looked. A  tall,  longish- necked  horse  not  infrequently 
has  a  long,  somewhat  depressed  back,  which  is  objec- 
tionable. If  the  lofty  neck,  slim  and  flexible  at  the 
throat -latch,  symmetrically  attached  to  the  shoulder  of 
a  selected  dam,  can  be  united  in  the  foal  with  the 
strong,  short  back  of  the  sire,  much  will  have  been 
accomplished  toward  producing  a  valuable  coacher. 
(See  Breeding,  Chapter  XIII.)  But,  "over  all,"  the 
coacher  must  have  good  length,  though  if  it  be  too 
great,  especially  if  the  back  be  too  long,  endurance 
and  spirit  are  likely  to  be  lacking.  The  legs,  like 
the  neck,  should  be  flexible  and  long  rather  than  short, 
with  high  action  rather  than  long  reach.  While  the  old 
saying  that  "a  coacher  should  travel  with  his  knees 
in  his  throat -latch  and  his  feet  in  a  bushel  basket" 
is  so  exaggerated  as  to  lose  force,  still  it  helps  to 
emphasize  the  fact  that  coachers  should  have  high 
knee  and  hock  action,  in  which  case  the  reach  will 
not  be  long.  The  coacher  is  not  designed  so  much 
for  speed  as  for  display,  coupled  with  hard  work  for 
short  periods.  The  coacher  should  have  courage  and 
staying  power,  for  it  will  require  both  if  the  proud, 
high,  elastic  trot  is  to  be  maintained  for  two  or  three 
consecutive  hours  over  rough  pavements  with  a  load 
suited  to  a  light  pair  at  a  walk. 


98  THE    HORSE 

The  coach -horse  may  be  less  rotund  than  the  hack- 
ney. He  is  usually  kept  plump,  even  fat;  but,  if  he 
has  naturally  the  rotund  ppny  form,  he  is  likely  to 
become  sluggish  and  unresponsive.  There  is  a  vast 
difference  between  the  pudgy  build  of  most  ponies 
and  the  longer,  graceful  lines  of  a  well -formed 
coacher.  Then,  too,  a  fairly  long-bodied  horse  need 
not  of  necessity  have  a  long  back.  It  is  frequently 
said  that  no  horse  should  have  a  long  back.  This  is 
only  relatively  true.  What  really  is  meant  is  that  the 
top  line  (back)  should  be  short  as  compared  with  the 
bottom  line  (belly).  Then,  too,  there  is  a  marked  dif- 
ference between  a  thick,  piglike  neck  and  one  that  is 
strongly  attached  to  the  shoulders.  While  the  neck  of 
a  coacher  should  be  rather  long  and  thin,  it  should 
have  a  high,  firm  seating  on  the  shoulders  and  taper 
rapidly  toward  its  intersection  with  the  head.  The 
demand  is  for  smooth,  rather  long,  flowing  outlines. 
Horses  of  pudgy  build  or  with  ragged  hips  or  angu- 
lar conformation  are  not  wanted.  An  arched,  flowing, 
full  tail,  good  feet  and  symmetrical  limbs  are  indis- 
pensable. 

When  all  is  summed  up,  color  has  much  to  do  with 
the  price,  and  indicates  to  some  extent,  it  is  believed, 
quality  and  endurance,  although  superior  horses  are 
sometimes  found  with  faded  light  colors  and  undesirable 
markings.  Dark  hoofs  are,  as  a  rule,  tougher  and  bet- 
ter than  light-colored  ones.  Seal  browns,  bright  unfad- 
ing bays,  with  strong  well-defined  black  or  dark  points, 
are  always  in  fashion  and  are  to  be  preferred  to  all  other 
colors.  Blacks  seldom  hold  their  color  when  exposed  to 


STYLE  AND    SIZE  99 

sun  and  rain.  It  is  said  that  a  black  horse  looks  smaller 
than  he  really  is  and  a  dappled  gray  larger.  Black 
horses  are  desirable  for  undertakers  perhaps,  but  they 
are  too  suggestive  of  that  particular  trade  to  be  in 
demand  for  private  use. 

Piebald  and  peculiarly  marked  animals  sometimes 
sell  well,  but  they  are  difficult  to  breed;  that  is,  they  are 
sports  rather  than  the  product  of  a  well-defined  variety 
or  breed;  "Calico  horses,"  and  sorrels  with  light  - 
colored  manes  and  tails,  find  their  best  market  in  South 
America,  where  they  are  especially  admired  by  the  Span- 
ish Americans.  Most  of  this  class  of  coachers  belong 
properly  in  the  carriage  class,  as  they  are  seldom  large 
enough  for  heavy  coaching.  As  yet,  few  true  coachers 
are  bred  in  the  United  States.  Many  fine  carriage- 
horses  and  roadsters  are  produced,  and  the  larger  ones 
serve  fairly  well  for  the  lighter  coaches  but  they  seldom 
have  the  size  requisite  to  give  the  turnout  the  stately 
front  necessary  to  prevent  the  coach  from  appearing 
too  large  and  lofty  for  the  team.  A  large  coach  with 
an  elevated  front  seat  and  a  tall  driver  has  the  effect 
of  making  the  horses  look  smaller  than  they  are.  We 
judge  most  things  by  comparison.  The  expert  horse- 
man not  infrequently  exhibits  his  horse  hitched  to  a 
low- wheeled  sulky,  phaeton  or  road- wagon,  which  has 
the  effect  of  making  the  horse  appear  larger  than  he 
really  is.  Animals  of  all  kinds  exposed  at  public  auction 
are  sometimes  placed  on  higher  ground  than  the  bidders, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  animals  appear  large. 
Even  the  complete  lowering  of  the  carriage-top  seems 
to  increase  the  size  of  the  horse  hitched  to  the  vehicle. 


100  THE    HORSE 

An  outline  of  the  work  required  of  a  coach-horse  and 
a  brief  description  of  the  horse  that  is  likely  to  bring 
the  highest  prices  have  been  given,  and  it  only  remains 
to  be  said  that  it  is  difficult  to  produce  large, 
symmetrical  coachers  of  the  true  type  with  high  action 
coupled  with  the  requisite  courage  and  endurance. 
For  some  time  to  come,  the  true  coacher  is  likely  to 
be  high-priced  and  difficult  to  procure  in  large 
numbers.  Medium  and  small  coachers  are  more  easily 
produced  than  the  large  ones,  but  they  bring  less  in 
the  market.  However,  it  may  be  said  that  they  have 
a  far  wider  range  of  customers,  since  the  medium  and 
small  coachers  may  serve  well  for  the  double  carriage, 
the  phaeton  or  for  family  driving  to  either  a  one-  or  a 
two-seater. 

Three  quite  common  varieties  or  breeds  of  horses 
are  now  used  in  the  production  of  coachers.  Among 
the  oldest  of  these  is  the  Cleveland  Bay.  Ample 
material  for  the  discussion  of  the  origin  and  merits 
of  the  Cleveland  Bay  may  be  found  in  the  Journals 
and  stud-books.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  very 
little  is  positively  known  of  the  origin  or  breeding  of 
most  of  the  foundation  stock. 

The  Cleveland  bay  has  many  of  the  coacher  char- 
acteristics. The  best  specimens  are  good-sized,  rangey, 
symmetrical  and  of  good  color — bright  bay.  When 
first  introduced  into  America,  it  was  said  that  he 
lacked  staying  power.  That  may  have  been  true  once, 
but  probably  is  not  so  now.  It  should  be  remembered 
that,  after  the  breed  had  attained  prominence  in  Eng- 
land and  after  many  specimens  had  been  imported 


FOUNDATION  STOCK  101 

into  the  United  States,  it  was  neglected,  and  it  was 
not  until  after  1865  that  the  remnants  of  the  breed 
were  hunted  up  and  used  as  foundation  stock  for 
what  might  be  called  the  improved  Cleveland  Bay  1 


Permission  of  F.  S.  Peer 
Fro.  14.    A  good  coacher 

If  the  reader  is  interested  in  foundation  stock,  he 
may  first  inspect  the  horse  under  onsideration;  if  pos- 
sible, find  out  something  in  detail  of  its  immediate 
ancestry.  If  there  is  progeny,  it  also  should  be  crit- 

1  See  Cleveland  Bay  Stud-Book,  "Retrospection  Volume,"  Sep- 
tember 1884.  For  American  stud-books,  see  appendix. 


102  THE    HORSE 

ically  studied.  If  the  animal  under  consideration  is 
good,  if  his  or  her  progeny  is  satisfactory  and  if  the 
ancestors  for  two  or  three  generations  are  of  good 
repute,  one  need  not  be  afraid  to  purchase  although 
nothing  of  the  breeding  of  the  remote  paternal  ancestor 
may  be  known.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  long  pedi- 
gree is  better  than  a  short  one;  but  a  short  pedigree  and 
an  animal  of  known  prepotency  is  better  than  a  com- 
monplace one  with  a  long  pedigree  "tailed"  by  one  or 
two  noted  animals  bred  fifty  to  seventy-five  years  ago. 

Description  and  Characteristics. — Color,  bright  bay, 
may  be  either  light  or  dark;  black  mane  and  tail;  black 
points;  usually  a  small  white  spot  between  the  "bulbs" 
of  one  or  more  of  the  heels;  size,  sixteen  to  seventeen 
hands;  weight,  1,100  to  1,300  pounds.  Head  symmetrical, 
with  kindly  expression  and  intelligent  cast  of  face;  neck 
long  and  arched  and  well  set  on  sloping  shoulders. 
Back  usually  of  good  length  and  form;  legs  clean,  of 
good  length  and  symmetrically  set  on  the  body;  feet 
and  lower  part  of  legs  dark -colored,  and  ietlocks  free 
from  long  hair.  Sometimes  the  Cleveland  is  too  light 
in  weight  for  high -class  coachers. 

A  printed  description  of  a  horse  never  fully  satisfies 
the  young,  progressive  horseman,  although  it  may  serve 
to  assist  the  beginner  in  distinguishing  one  breed  from 
another  which  is  similar.  A  horse  may  fill  the  above 
description  fairly  well  and  yet  be  so  deficient  in  action 
and  courage  and  so  unresponsive  to  the  rein  that  all 
his  other  qualities  fail  to  redeem  him  from  the  common 
herd.  He  is  simply  an  unresponsive  beauty.  The 
moving,  living  horse  must  be  studied  before  an  accurate 


BREEDING   CO  AC  HE  US  103 

conception  can  be  secured  of  what  style,  symmetry, 
harmonious  motion  and  even-tempered  high  courage 
are. 

THE    TROTTER   AS   A   SIRE    OF   COACHERS 

Now  and  then  a  large  trotting -bred  stallion  begets 
stylish  coachers  when  bred  to  suitable  mares.  (See 
chapter  on  Breeding.)  In  fact,  many  coachers  up  to 
about  1875  were  so  produced.  Soon  after  the  war  of 
1861-65  an  unusual  demand  arose  for  coachers,  and 
the  market  soon  demanded  better  horses,  or,  rather,  far 
better  prices  were  received  for  really  superior  coachers 
than  had  formerly  been  realized.  The  rapid  increase 
in  wealth  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century 
has  made  it  possible  to  sell  really  good  coachers  at 
double  and  triple  the  prices  secured  for  them  in  early 
years.  This  demand  not  only  stimulated  the  importa- 
tion of  both  English  and  French  coach  stallions,  but 
also  the  breeding  of  coachers  from  large  trotting  sires 
and  large  symmetrical  mares  having  a  dash,  at  least, 
of  thoroughbred  blood.  In  fact,  some  good  coachers 
have  been  produced  by  this  method  of  breeding.  It  is 
unexplainable  why  the  lovers  of  horses  did  not,  when 
the  demand  arose  for  coachers,  select  and  systemati- 
cally unite  the  good  blood  already  possessed  in  the 
large  trotter  and  beautiful  mixed -blooded  mares.  With 
such  animals  as  foundation  stock,  a  few  generations 
of  skilful  breeding,  coupled  with  judicious  but  liberal 
feeding,  would  have  produced  a  coacher  of  sufficient 
size  to  meet  the  most  exacting  demands,  and  of  superior 
endurance,  style  and  courage.  It  is  not  yet  too  late 


104  THE   HORSfi 

to  produce  an  American  coacher,  if  we  can  be  weaned 
from  the  notion  that,  of  necessity,  everything  imported 
has  quality  and  value  above  the  home  production. 
Out  of  the  thoroughbred  and  selected  superior  mixed- 
blooded  road-mares  has  been  developed  in  America 
a  superb,  unequaled,  utilitarian  and  pleasure -giving 
animal,  unexcelled  in  any  other  country.  From  the 
same  blood  and  by  similar  methods,  in  less  time  and 
at  far  less  expense  and  pains  than  have  been  incurred 
in  producing  the  trotter,  a  potent  breed  of  coacher 
might  have  been  produced.  Sooner  or  later  it  will 
have  to  be  done,  or  rather  it  will  be  done;  and  then 
an  imported  coacher  will  be  as  rare  as  imported  Merino 
sheep,  or  an  imported  steam -locomotive. 

It  may  be  said,  the  fact  that  Europeans  are  pur- 
chasing large  numbers  of  horses  in  America  for 
cavalry  mounts  and  other  army  purposes  proves  con- 
clusively that  many  good  sires  and  dams,  usually  of 
mixed  blood,  are  possessed  by  American  farmers.  As 
these  pages  are  being  written,  it  is  reported  that 
nearly  20,000  army  horses  have  been  shipped  from 
New  Orleans  to  South  Africa  for  war  purposes  during 
the  last  two  months.  It  would  seem  that  while  we  have 
good  foundation  stock  for  the  production  of  cavalry- 
horses,  we  are  importing  Demi- Sang  cavalry -stall  ions 
from  France  to  be  used  for  siring  coachers.  If,  then,  the 
largest  and  best  of  French  cavalry -stallions  are  suitable 
for  producing  coachers,  why  can  not  the  largest  and  best 
of  the  American  Demi-Sangs,  or  mixed-bloods,  also  be 
used  for  producing  coachers?  Since  they  are  virtually  of 
the  same  lineage, — that  is,  they  have  a  liberal  infusion 


DEMI -SANG  105 

of  "warm"  or  oriental  blood  liberally  mixed  with  good 
but  unknown  or  nondescript  blood. 

THE   FRENCH   COACH  —  DEMI -SANG    (HALF-BLOOD) 

Some  of  the  European  governments  find  difficulty 
in  securing  enough  suitable  horses  for  mounting 
cavalry  and  for  other  army  uses.  Because  of  this 
shortage  some  governments,  notably  the  French,  have 
given  aid  and  encouragement  to  the  horse  breeders, 
especially  those  who  were  endeavoring  to  produce 
superior  animals  suited  to  such  purposes.  No  claim 
is  made  that  these  horses  are  thoroughbred  or  even 
pure-bred.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  American 
trotter.  It  appears  that  really  very  good  and  desir- 
able horses  can  be  produced  by  uniting  two  good 
animals,  though  only  one  or  neither  are  classed  as 
pure-bred.  They  are  simply  Demi-Sangs,  although 
without  doubt  the  blood  of  the  English  thoroughbred 
(Orient)  largely  predominates. 

Some  time  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  thoroughbred  stallions  were  introduced 
into  France  from  England.  The  services  of  these 
horses  and  the  best  of  their  get  were  offered  at  low 
rates  to  breeders  of  this  class  of  stock.  A  bonus  was 
granted  by  the  Government  to  owners  of  superior 
stallions,  on  the  condition  that  the  stallions  so  sub- 
sidized should  remain  in  the  country  for  service.  All 
stallions  advertised  for  service  had  to  be  approved  by 
the  Government,  and  none  but  superior  ones  were  sub- 
sidized. This  Government  control  did  not  extend 


106 


THE    HORSE 


FlG.  15.     French  coach  stallion  Paladin,  1968 

Championship  winner  over  all  coach  and  carriage  breeds,  including  hackneys, 
German  coachers,  trotters,  thoroughbreds  and  Cleveland  Bays,  Chicago 
Horse  Show,  1897. 

Bred,  owned  and  now  in  service  at  Oaklawn  Farm, 
Wayne,  Du  Page  County,  Illinois. 

throughout  the  country;  hence  the  breeding  of  horses 
specifically  for  cavalry  use  was  confined  chiefly  to  the 
departments  of  Orne,  Calvados  and  Seine-Inferieure. 
Description. — The  color  of  the  French  coach -horse 
may  be  bay,  chestnut  or  black,  though  bays  are  far 
the  most  common  and  universally  selected  by  Ameri- 


SIZE   OF  CO  AC  HERS  107 

can  importers.  In  weight  they  are  nearly  equal  to 
the  Cleveland,  though  usually  not  quite  as  tall.  Their 
average  weight  ranges  from  1,050  to  1,250  for  stallions. 
The  head  is  blood-like,  small,  clean  and  expressive. 
The  neck  is  only  moderately  long,  well  arched  and 
symmetrically  set  on  long,  sloping  shoulders.  The 
back  is  short;  hips  moderately  long  and  well  up;  legs 
of  moderate  length,  clean,  symmetrical;  feet  tough 
and  well  formed.  The  best  specimens  are  so  symmet- 
rical, the  parts  so  harmonious,  the  movement  so 
rhythmical,  that  one  finds  little  to  criticize  except  lack 
of  size;  and  it  may  be  a  question  whether  the  size 
can  be  much  increased  without  developing  some  unde- 
sirable characteristics,  especially  coarseness.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  it  would  be  better  to  attempt  to 
produce  a  little  larger  coacher  by  coupling  with  large 
dams.  The  danger  in  this  is  that  large  dams  are 
often  coarse  in  make-up,  and  if  the  stallion  should 
not  be  usually  prepotent  the  outcome  would  be  a 
coacher  lacking  in  symmetry.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
breeders  are  rightly  making  an  effort  to  increase  the 
size  of  this  horse  without  diminishing  his  courage, 
his  symmetry,  style  and  endurance. 

It  is  probable  that,  in  time,  even  better  material  for 
producing  a  variety  of  American  coachers  than  is 
now  found  in  the  trotter  may  be  secured  from  the 
get  of  these  French  horses.  If  the  attempt  is  ever 
made,  it  should  not  take  many  generations  in  skilful 
hands  to  produce  a  breed.  Some  horsemen,  whose 
opinions  have  much  weight,  contend  that  the  Cleve- 
land bay  and  French  coachers  are  large  enough  for 


108  THE    HOUSE 

coachers  since  so  many  streets  now  present  smooth, 
well-graded  surfaces,  and  since  the  art  of  building 
strong  light  vehicles  by  using  steel  and  wood  in 


By  permission  "  Rider  and  Drive*  " 

FIG.  1(5.    Imported  German  coach  stallion 
Property  of  J.  Crouch  &  Son,  Lafayette  Stock  Faim,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

the  most  scientific  combinations  has  been  acquired, 
the  effort  should  be  to  lighten  the  weight  and  draft 
of  the  coach  rather  than  to  increase  the  size  of  the 
coacher.  But  the  fact  still  remains  that  large  coachers, 


THE  GERMAN   COACH  HOUSE  109 

other  things  being  equal ,  sell  for  more  than  do  those 
of  medium  size. 

No  other  breeds  or  varieties  of  horses  other  than 
those  mentioned  above  have  attracted  wide  attention 
as  progenitors  of  coachers.  For  a  more  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  coachers,  consult  the  authors  mentioned  in 
the  bibliography. 

The  German  coach,  since  the  World's  Fair  held  at 
Chicago,  1893,  has  had  some  admirers,  and  there  are 
now  good  specimens  of  them  in  the  United  States. 
Here  we  have  a  horse  which  fills  the  requirements  as 
to  size  and  color.  In  studying  them  closely,  I  fre- 
quently heard  the  following  remark:  "They  are  large 
and  fine,  but  they  lack  somewhat  that  springy  and 
easy  action  so  much  admired  in  coachers."  My  own 
impression  was  that  they  did  not  possess  these  char- 
acteristics as  fully  as  desired.  Notwithstanding  these 
criticisms,  I  confidently  believe  that  the  German 
coach  is  likely  to  produce  a  superior  coacher  when 
bred  to  mares  of  suitable  size  and  type,  that  is,  to 
those  having  a  liberal  infusion  of  warm  blood  coupled 
with  the  indescribable  finish,  form  and  action  some- 
times found  in  mares  of  mixed  blood,  not  infrequently 
described  as  "good  road -mares,"  of  great  endurance 
and  efficient  service  anywhere  except  at  heavy  draft. 

The  accompanying  cut  is  that  of  a  horse  whose 
make-up  is  emphatically  of  the  large  coach  type. 
Slightly  modified  to  suit  American  tastes,  this  breed 
should  find  quick  recognition  in  the  large  cities.  For 
further  particulars,  consult  German  Coach  Horse  Stud- 
Book;  also  J,  Crouch  &  Sons,  Lafayette,  Indiana. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE   HACKNEY 

THIS  breed  of  horses,  recently  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  has  attracted  marked  attention.  The 
hackney  has  a  peculiarly  striking  and  pleasing  appear- 
ance difficult  to  describe.  His  chief  charms  consist  in 
high  action,  unusual  symmetry  and  snap.  Though 
not  so  speedy  as  the  trotter  nor  so  well  adapted  to 
equestrianism  as  the  American  saddle-horse,  nor  so 
good  for  moving  heavy  loads  as  the  draft-horse,  yet  he 
fills  a  useful  place  not  occupied  by  any  other  breed. 
He  is  stout,  active,  sure-footed,  courageous  and  pos- 
sessed of  a  good  constitution  and  a  lovely  temper.  A 
good  specimen  of  this  breed  satisfies  the  eye,  whether 
he  be  viewed  from  the  ground,  the  road -wagon  or  the 
saddle.  His  neck  is  well  set  on,  all-embracing  where 
it  meets  the  shoulders,  arched  and  long  enough  to  be 
beautiful.  The  head  is  clean  and  intelligent,  the  ears 
small  and  attractive.  The  back  is  ideal  for  the  work 
usually  demanded  of  him,  being  short  and  strong, 
while  the  hind  quarters  are  long  and  powerful.  The 
legs  and  feet  appear  slightly  larger  in  proportion  to 
size  than  do  the  speedier  trotters',  yet  they  are  far 
from  being  coarse  or  draft -like.  His  limbs  are  flexible 
and  are  set  on  the  body  symmetrically. 

The  illustration  (Fig.  17)  shows  a  typical  specimen 
(110) 


ORIGIN  OF   THE  HACK  NET  111 

of  the  breed  and  gives  a  better  idea  of  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  than  could  be  secured  from  an 
elaborate  description.  Not  much  is  known  specifically 
of  the  origin  of  the  hackney.  Johnson's  Dictionary 
describes  a  hackney  as  being  a  hired  horse.  In  early 


FIG.  17.    Imported  Cadet  (1251)  10  Y.     Chestnut  stallion,  foaled  1884 
Bred  by  Hy.  Moore,  Esq.,  England.    Owned  by  A.  J.  Cassatt,  ESQ.,  Chester- 
brook  Farm,  Berwyn,  Pa. 
By  Lord  Derby,  2d  417.     Dam  289  Princess,  by  Denmark.  1  Y  Y 

days,  before  Macadam  discovered  the  art  of  road- 
building,  the  highways  of  England  were  quite  as  bad 
as  they  are  in  America.  At  an  early  period,  a  horse 
had  been  developed  similar,  in  many  respects,  to  the 
modern  improved  hackney.  The  men  who  kept  horses 
for  hire  soon  learned  to  purchase  those  of  this  type 
because  it  was  found  they  were  the  best  to  carry  heavy 
riders  and  to  use  on  the  post-chaise  and  stage  coaches, 
since  they  had  extreme  endurance  and  pluck  and  were 
easily  kept  in  good  flesh.  By  a  modern  infusion  of 


112  THE    HORSE 

warm  blood,  his  mental  endowments  have  been  greatly 
improved,  and  his  action  and  spirit  also,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  "staying  qualities"  of  the  breed  have 
been  preserved. 

There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  size  of  the  hackney.  Mr.  Burdett  Coutts  is  in 
favor  of  increasing  the  size  by  careful  selection  of 
sires  and  dams.  Other  expert  breeders  do  not  believe 
that  the  size  can  be  increased  without  losing,  to  some 
extent,  some  of  the  valuable  characteristics  of  the 
breed.  I  incline  to  the  latter  opinion;  for  the  breed, 
if  increased  in  size,  would  certainly  either  lose  some 
of  its  snap  and  elastic  force,  or,  in  case  these  qualities 
were  retained,  the  added  weight  would  overtax  the 
limbs.  No  animal  with  the  high  mettle  and  quick 
motion  of  the  hackney  can  approach  the  weight  of 
the  draft-horse  without  being  in  danger  of  breaking 
down.  An  increase  of  weight  implies,  or  should  imply, 
a  decrease  in  snap  and  quick  movement.  Of  necessity, 
the  horse  of  heavy  weight  should  be  somewhat  phleg- 
matic in  temperament,  otherwise  his  limbs  will  soon 
give  out.  The  old  saying,  "A  good  horse  will  wear 
out  two  sets  of  legs,"  is  often  true,  and  therefore  a 
horse's  limbs  should  never  be  overloaded  by  too  heavy 
body  weight. 

The  hackney,  when  full  gi<own,  should  be  not  far 
from  fifteen  hands  high.  If  he  is  rather  slim  of  body, 
one  or  two  inches  more  may  not  be  objectionable,  but 
if  inclined  to  be  "stocky"  then  his  height  would 
better  not  exceed  the  standard  indicated. 

Two  hackneys, — Little    Wonder,  imported   early   in 


HACKNEYS   IN  FAVOR 


113 


FIG.  18.    Champion  hackney  stallion   and  champion  sire   Fandango  443 

Winner  of  American  Hackney  Society's  Challenge  Cup,  National  Horse  Show, 

New  York,  1899-1900 
Owned  by  Frederick  C.  Stevens,  Maplewood  Stock  Farm,  Attica,  N.  Y. 

1883  by  A.  J.  Cassatt,  and  Fashion,  imported  a  year 
later  by  Prescott  Lawrence,  attracted  wide  attention. 
The  hackney  has  grown  into  favor  in  recent  years  not 
only  in  the  East  but  in  the  West  as  well.  It  is  said 

H 


114  THE    HORSE 

that  181  hackney  stallions  were  sold  in  England  for 
exportation  to  the  United  States  in  the  years  1888  to 
1890  inclusive,  a  majority  of  which  were  taken  west 
of  the  Ohio  river.  At  the  present  time,  there  are 
many  breeders  of  the  hackney  of  wide  reputation.  No 
pains  have  been  spared  to  select  the  best  animals  of 
England  for  importation.  Too  often  the  importations 
from  Europe  of  some  classes  of  animals  have  not 
been  up  to  the  highest  standards  of  their  respective 
breed.  Fortunate  it  is  that  so  many  superior  and  so 
few  inferior  stallions  of  this  breed  have  been  brought 
to  the  United  States.  The  standard  was  set  high  at 
first  by  wealthy  and  distinguished  horse  breeders,  and 
it  has  been  rigidly  maintained.  The  beneficial  results 
of  this  policy  are  evident,  for  one  seldom  sees  a  hack- 
ney full-blood  or  half-blood  that  is  "weedy"  or 
undesirable. 


CHAPTER    IX 
THE    HUNTEE 

Chapter  by  F.  S.  PEER 

THE  organization  of  many  new  hunt -clubs  through- 
out the  eastern  states,  during  the  last  ten  years,  has 
greatly  increased  the  demand  for  horses  suitable  for 
cross-country  riding.  The  demand  for  high -class  sad- 
dle-horses—  other  than  the  gaited  horse  of  Kentucky  — 
and  ladies'  and  gentlemen's  hacks  (a  horse  for  both 
riding  and  driving),  has  always  been  so  poorly  sup- 
plied that  only  comparatively  few  people  who  require 
them  can  be  suited.  The  others  must  take  up  with 
trotting -bred  horses,  and  other  make -shifts  that  are 
poor  substitutes,  indeed,  for  the  real  thing.  The  breed- 
ing of  the  hunter  is  well  within  the  range  of  the  ordinary 
farmer.  Many  nondescript  mares  suitable,  when  coupled 
with  good  sires,  for  breeding  hunters  are  already  in  the 
country,  and  might  be  utilized. 

The  requirements  in  a  saddle-horse,  or  hunter,  are 
such  that  they  are  produced  only  by  a  special  line  of 
breeding,  as  we  shall  presently  attempt  to  show.  The 
prices  paid  for  them  would  indicate  that  they  bring  a 
greater  return  for  the  money  invested  in  the  animals 
for  producing  them,  than  any  other  class  of  horses. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  farmers  of  moderate 
means,  and  limited  experience  in  breeding.  Almost  any 

(115) 


116  THE   HORSE 

well-bred  farm -mares  of  suitable  conformation, — even 
grade  draft-mares  and  such  general-purpose  animals 
as  are  found  on  all  farms, —  make  very  excellent 
broodmares  for  producing  this  class  of  animals.  If, 
on  account  of  injury  or  blemishes,  these  thoroughbred 
grades  fail  to  sell  for  the  purposes  intended,  still  they 
are  the  very  best  horses  a  farmer  can  have  on  the 
place  for  light  road-  and  for  light  farm -work. 

The  one  thing  essential  is  to  obtain  the  use  of  a 
thoroughbred  (running-horse)  for  a  sire.  He  may 
usually  be  secured  at  a  moderate  price  from  racing 
establishments.  I  refer  to  such  horses  as  have  become 
injured  or  incapacitated  for  track  work,  but  arc  still 
valuable  for  breeding  purposes. 

BREEDING    HUNTERS     AND    SADDLE-HORSES 

Selection  of  Sire  and  Dam. —  On  account  of  his  inborn 
qualifications  for  saddle  work,  the  thoroughbred  run- 
ning-horse is  the  only  animal  that  is  worth  considering 
for  a  sire.  Not  only  his  low  elastic  action,  but 
his  general  conformation  distinguishes  him  from  all 
other  breeds  of  horses  as  the  most  suitable  for  horse- 
back riding.  He  has  more  intelligence,  more  courage 
and  more  endurance  than  any  other  breed  of  horses. 
The  pure  thoroughbreds  are  of  a  very  nervous  tempera- 
ment, and  it  often  requires  a  bit  of  horsemanship  to  get 
on  with  them.  The  half-  or  three-quarter-bloods,  how- 
ever, make  the  best  all-round  horse  that  it  is  possible  to 
produce  for  hunting,  ordinary  saddle  work,  combination 
saddle  and  harness,  cavalry,  light  artillery,  or  farm 


118  THE    HORSE 

work,  and  I  might  add  (barring  action)  light  road  work. 
The  grade  thoroughbreds  have  no  equals;  they  can 
do  any  one,  or  all,  of  these  things,  and  better  than 
any  other  class,  or  family,  or  cross-bred  animal  that 
does  not  include  thoroughbred  blood.  They  will  do  all 
that  any  horse  of  their  inches  can,  and  then  draw  on 
their  almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  energy  —  nerve 
force — to  pull  them  through.  This  is  my  experience 
after  years  of  breeding,  rearing  and  schooling  horses 
of  all  sorts.  Any  man  with  horsemanship  or  "horse 
sense"  enough  to  avoid  abusing  or  fighting  with  them, 
will,  if  his  experience  is  my  own,  say  they  have 
spoiled  him  forever  for  having  any  other  horses  about — 
except  for  heavy  work.  Of  course,  they  are  usually 
deficient  in  knee  and  hock  action,  which  is  so  desirable 
in  a  high-class  harness -horse.  If  they  possessed  it, 
however,  they  would  become  correspondingly  less  useful 
for  saddle  work. 

I  believe  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that,  as  a 
rule,  two  good  half-  or  three -quarter -bred  horses  will 
do  as  much  as  three  ordinary  horses  of  equal  weight, 
They  are  as  useful  on  the  farm  as  they  are  ornamental 
in  the  hunting  field,  and  under  saddle;  they  are  as  indis- 
pensable in  a  cavalry  charge  as  they  are  graceful  in 
carrying  a  lady  for  a  ride  in  a  park.  They  can  pull  a 
harrow  or  bring  back  a  gun-carriage  after  all  their  cold- 
blooded relations  have  wilted  and  quit.  So  much  for 
the  blooded  horse  as  a  sire  of  high -class  animals  with 
courage  and  endurance,  which  qualifications  are  required 
in  the  hunter  more  than  in  any  other  class  of  horses. 

As  to  selection  of  suitable  dams  to  breed  to  a  thor- 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  HUNTER     119 

oughbred  stallion,  the  mare  should  be,  first  of  all,  sound 
and  free  from  vices.  Defects  are  usually  trans- 
mitted through  or  inherited  from  the  dam.  Mares  with 
full  and  high  sloping  withers,  which  keep  the  saddle 
well  back  where  it  belongs  and  free  of  the  shoulder 
blades,  are  most  essential.  Low,  full  withers  permit  the 
saddle  to  turn.  A  low  or  only  medium  up -carriage  of 
the  head  is  desirable.  High -headed  horses  are  very 
objectionable  for  hunters.  A  hunter  or  saddle-horse 
should  carry  the  head  so  the  eyes  are  about  at  the 
height  of  the  withers.  A  "park  hack"  may  carry  a 
higher  head.  A  stout,  broad  loin,  but  not  too  short  in 
the  back  or  coupling,  is  best.  A  short  back  for  a  sad- 
dle-horse sounds  all  right  theoretically,  but  practically 
it  is  not  altogether  desirable.  A  horse  must  have 
length  of  body,  or  he  cannot  stride  away.  Short  mid- 
dle pieces  usually  accompany  a  correspondingly  short, 
choppy  gait,  which  is  most  uncomfortable  for  the  rider. 
Hock  and  knee  joints  very  large,  even  to  coarseness,  in 
the  mares  is  very  desirable.  The  true  arm  should  be 
rather  short  and  upright  —  the  full  sloping  withers 
keep  the  saddle  well  back  on  the  upper  line,  but  a 
short,  upright  true  arm  is  even  more  essential,  as  it 
places  the  fore  legs  of  the  animal  well  forward  of  the 
saddle  girths,  which  enables  the  rider  to  sit  back  over 
the  horse's  center  of  gravity.  A  long  oblique  true  arm 
may  bring  the  fore  legs  so  far  back  as  to  move  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  rider  too  far  forward,  which 
makes  the  horse  labored  in  his  gait,  and  increases  mate- 
rially the  chances  of  his  falling  or  even  turning  a  somer- 
sault on  the  landing  side  of  a  fence  he  is  jumping. 


120  THE    HORSE 

The  mare  should  have  depth  of  body  in  the  fore- 
quarters  rather  than  breadth.  Horses  that  are  thick  or 
wide  through  the  heart,  or  with  springing  ribs,  which 
are  so  desirable  in  harness -horses,  are  most  uncomfor- 


Permission  of  Rider  &  Driver 
FlG.  20.    Ontario 

table  for  saddle-work,  as  they  spread  the  rider's  legs  too 
far  apart.  Again,  horses  too  broad  in  the  breast  ( fore 
legs  wide  apart)  are  usually  rough  and  rolling  in  their 
gait,  which  is  also  most  objectionable.  These  are  the 
principal  features  to  be  looked  for  and  avoided  in 
mating  mares  with  a  thoroughbred  horse,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  getting  high -class  hunters,  saddle-horses  or 
hacks  of  endurance. 


HEADQUARTERS  FOR  HUNTERS        121 

In  undertaking:  this  kind  of  breeding,  it  should  be 
carried  on  as  much  as  possible  in  communities,  to 
attract  buyers.  The  Province  of  Ontario,  Canada;  West 
Virginia  and  some  sections  of  Missouri  are  the  present 
headquarters  for  breeding  this  class  of  horses  in  Amer- 
ica. Many  thousand  dollars  for  horses  go  annually  to 
these  centers  from  all  parts  of  the  eastern  states. 
There  is  a  very  promising  field  for  any  community 
of  eastern  farmers  undertaking  to  breed  this  class  of 
horses.  The  great  reputation  won  by  Canada  in  the 
harness-  and  saddle-horse  markets  of  the  world,  and 
in  supplying  the  very  highest  class  of  remounts  for  the 
British  army,  is  owing  to  the  extensive  use  of  the 
"blood"  horse  in  some  sections  of  the  Dominion. 
Within  a  radius  of  twenty -five  miles  of  the  City  of 
Toronto,  for  instance,  there  were  reported,  in  1895, 
sixty-odd  thoroughbred  stallions  in  service  principally, 
almost  entirely,  to  farm  mares. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  general  use  among 
farmers  of  thoroughbred  sires  in  Canada  has  brought  to 
that  country  the  enviable  reputation  it  now  enjoys  for 
breeding  high -class  horses  both  for  saddle  and  harness, 
and  that  it  has  brought  to  our  cousins  across  the  lakes 
millions  of  American  dollars  that  should  have  remained 
at  home. 


CHAPTER    X 

PONIES 

THE  breeds  and  varieties  of  ponies  ani  small  horses 
are  numerous;  even  Asia  and  Africa  possess  many. 
Some  are  covered  with  hair  which  approaches  bristles 
in  coarseness  and  stiffness.  Corsica  had  a  breed  of  ponies 
as  untamable  as  the  zebra.  It  is  said  that  the  body 
length  of  the  Asiatic  horse  about  equals  his  height  at 
the  withers,  while  the  body -length  of  the  African  horse 
is  considerably  less  than  his  height. 

The  pig  has  evidently  sprung  from  two  distinct 
groups,  8us  scrofa,  of  Europe,  and  8us  Indicus,  of  Asia. 
Professor  Low  questions  whether  the  African  and  the 
Asiatic  horses  have  not  also  sprung  from  two  species, 
or  groups,  originally  radically  different.  However,  it  is 
probable  that  differences  in  altitude,  food  and  environ- 
ment, and  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  respective 
varieties  were  domesticated  have  furnished  opportunity 
for  variations  to  take  place  as  wide  as  those  noted. 
Moreover,  the  variations  noted  in  horses  are  not  wider 
than  are  found  in  the  different  breeds  of  domesticated 
sheep.  As  yet,  nothing  is  positively  known  as  to 
whether  the  modern  horse  sprang  from  one  or  two 
radically  different  species.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  call 
attention  to  the  marked  dissimilarity  of  horses  in  differ- 
ent localities  and  in  different  countries. 

(122) 


TYPES   OF  PONIES  123 

The  little  bronco  of  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
has  assumed  several  somewhat  distinct  types,  due  some- 
times to  slight  admixture  of  blood,  and  to  climate,  en- 
vironment and  use.  Specific  distinguishing  names  have 


FlG.  21.     Disgusted  with  the  circus  in  six  months 

been  given  to  some  of  these  types, — such  as  mustang, 
Creole,  Indian  and  bronco. 

In  the  United  States,  comparatively  few  ponies  are 
now  bred  or  used,  except  on  the  plains.  If  these  are 
handsome  and  kind,  they  are  salable  to  a  limited  extent 


124 


THE   HORSE 


at  remunerative  prices.  The  American  lad,  before  he 
reaches  his  "teens,"  longs  for  a  "truly"  horse,  one 
that  has  the  form  and  action  of  the  roadster  and  which 
requires  more  horsemanship  to  drive  or  ride  than  does 


FIG.  22.    A  pair  of  trick  ponies 

the  pony.  He  may  be  satisfied  with  an  animal  fourteen 
hands  high,  which,  in  some  sections,  is  called  a  pony, 
in  others,  a  light  roadster;  but,  in  any  case,  the  animal 
must  have  many  of  the  traits  and  approach  the  build  of 
the  snappy  roadster.  In  other  words,  he  must  not  be 
PU(4gy,  short  of  pace  and  thick  of  neck;  if  he  is,  he  is 
called  a  child's  pony,  and  despised  by  the  lad  of  sixteen. 


'1HE   SHETLAND    PONY  125 

Those  animals  which  are  fourteen  hands  and  under 
are  usually  classed  as  ponies;  those  above  fourteen  and 
under  fifteen  hands,  if  pony  built,  are,  in  England, 
called  Galloways.  However,  this  latter  term  is  not  com- 
monly used  in  the  States  to  designate  a  smallish  horse. 
The  name  pony,  used  generically  to  designate  a  small  or 
smallish  horse,  of  pony  build,  is  used  so  differently  in 
different  countries,  and  even  in  different  districts  of  the 
same  country,  that  it  is  often  difficult-  to  classify  them 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy. 

THE     SHETLAND    PONY 

Until  quite  recently,  the  Shetland  pony  was  the  only 
one  bred  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  eastern  states. 
The  Shetland  is  the  smallest  of  the  pony  breeds  and  has 
long  attracted  marked  attention,  because  of  his  small- 
ness  and  not  infrequently  because  of  his  peculiar  and 
striking  markings.  Reared  on  the  rugged  Shetland 
Islands,  north  of  Scotland,  where  a  large  animal  would 
not  serve  the  inhabitants  so  well  as  a  small  one,  and  in 
a  climate  so  bleak  that  larger  horses,  even  if  introduced, 
would  soon  become  dwarfed,  they  have  not  been  crossed 
with  larger  breeds,  except  with  the  Iceland  pony,  which 
cross  was  not  successful.  These  ponies  are,  in  their 
native  home,  subjected  to  great  hardships.  They  are 
usually  allowed  to  roam  in  the  open  in  the  winter  as  well 
as  in  the  summer.  As  the  demand  for  them  increased 
and  the  prices  advanced,  some  pains  have  been  taken  to 
provide  more  abundant  food  and,  not  infrequently,  rude 
shelter.  However,  the  Shetland  pony  is  so  thickly 


126 


THE    HORSE 


coated,  or  double -coated,  with  fine,  short,  mossy  hair 
and  a  long,  coarser  coat,  that  -he  seeks  the  shelter  of  a 
building  only  in  extremely  tempestuous  weather.  When 
removed  to  a  milder  climate  and  housed,  it  requires  but 
a  few  generations  to  materially  modify  the  hairy  cover- 
ing, and,  in  some  cases,  even  the  general  form  of  the 
animal  as  well.  The  tendency  is  for  them  to  grow  taller, 


FlO.  2:3.     Exile  of   Pittsl'ord  (4.V20).     Height,  43>£  inches. 
Owned  by  Mrs.  Estelle  F.  Hawley,  Pittsford,  N.  \. 

trimmer  and  of  slightly  less  robust  build  if  judiciously 
fed.  The  well-bred,  home-reared  pony  is  likely  to  fill 
the  eye  of  the  American  boy  better  than  the  imported. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  the  Shetland  ponies, 
due,  in  part,  to  the  aspect  of  the  locality  in  which  they 
are  bred;  in  part  to  the  different  tastes  of  the  breed- 
ers; and  probably,  in  part,  to  slight  differences  in  the 
foundation  stock  of  the  several  varieties,  However, 


THE  SHETLAND'S  POPULARITY 


127 


they  are  sufficiently  uniform  to  be  classed  as  a  single 
breed. 

There  is  likely  to  be  an  increased  demand  for  first- 
class  Shetlands.  As  wealth  increases  the  demand 
increases;  but  this  demand,  as  might  be  expected,  is  for 
high -class  animals.  The  second-class  pony  has  few 


FIG.  24.    Bressay  of  Pittsford  (3151).    Height,  38  inches. 
Owned  by  Mrs.  Estelle  F.  Hawley,  Pittsford.  N.  Y. 

purchasers,  for,  if  the  income  justifies  the  purchase  of  a 
pony  at  all,  it  justifies  the  acquiring  of  one  that  is  both 
good  and  beautiful.  As  yet,  in  America,  there  is  no 
large  place  for  the  Shetland  pony  except  as  a  child's 
horse. 

While  there  have  been  several  valuable  breeds  of 
ponies  imported  and  bred  in  the  United  States,  the  little 
Shetland  pony  is  not  likely  to  lose  his  well-earned  pop- 


128  THE    HORSE 

ularity.  The  pony  can  be  made  very  useful,  under 
proper  supervision,  in  educating  children  to  be  coura- 
geous, self-reliant,  kind  to  and  thoughtful  of  the  brute 
creation.  The  American  farm  boy  is  usually  an  expert 
horseman,  due,  without  doubt,  to  his  early  familiarity 
with  colts  and  horses  on  the  farm.  The  city  lad  may 
acquire  much  of  the  same  expertness  by  handling 
ponies.  This  four-legged  associate  is  often  a  safer  com- 
panion, for  a  hot-headed  youth,  than  a  two-legged  one. 
The  question  as  to  whether  there  is  profit  in  raising 
ponies  sinks  into  insignificance  beside  the  larger  one — 
Is  there  profit  to  the  country  in  rearing  self-reliant, 
strong,  humanized  citizens  ? 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  smaller  ponies  sell  for 
higher  prices  than  the  larger  ones,  and  the  piebald  or 
spotted  ones  often  for  more  than  those  of  solid  colors. 
In  any  case,  the  Shetland  is  seldom  more  than  thirteen 
hands  high,  fifty -two  inches;  the  smaller  ones  but  six 
to  seven  hands  high.  However,  a  large  majority  of 
these  ponies  range  from  thirty -five  to  forty -five  inches 
in  height.  When  placed  under  conditions  similar  to 
those  of  larger  horses  in  America,  the  tendency  is  for 
them  to  increase  in  size  and  become  somewhat  phleg- 
matic and  less -enduring.  Then,  too,  they  sometimes 
have  a  tendency  to  heaves  or  asthma.  However,  this 
tendency  is  largely  or  wholly  due  to  idleness  and  over- 
feeding, especially  of  hay.  The  very  fact  that  they  are 
small  and  are  pets  results  in  their  being  fed  too  fre- 
quently and  too  liberally.  In  this  country  a  hundred 
ponies  are  injured  by  overfeeding  where  one  is  injured 
by  underfeeding.  To  keep  ponies  trim  in  form  and 


GOOD    VS.  POOR  PONIES 


129 


lively,  especially  where    they  are  used   but   little,   the 

grain    ration   should   be    about   one -halt',  and  the  hay 

ration  one -fourth  of  that  fed  to  the  employed  roadster. 

It  is  sometimes  said    that  a  pony  can   be  bred  and 


FIG.  25.     Champion  Welsh  pony  mare.    Titor,  11%  hands  high. 
Owned  by  John  Jones  &  Sons,  Colwyn  Bay,  North  Wales,  England 

raised  about  as  cheaply  as  a  sheep.  The  raising  of  good 
ponies  is  a  highly  specialized  business;  therefore  their 
breeding  should  not  be  begun  hastily  or  ignorantly. 
Anybody,  can  raise  little  horses  at  little  expense,  but 
they  will  have  to  be  content  with  little  prices.  In  pony 
breeding,  something  for  a  little  or  nothing  is  no  more 
likely  to  be  secured  than  in  the  production  of  other  live 


130  THE    HORSE 

stock.  The  same  careful  selection  of  foundation  stock, 
the  same  judgment  in  mating  and  care  as  is  taken  in 
breeding  the  trotter  or  saddler,  must  be  exercised,  if  the 
animals  most  in  demand  at  remunerative  prices  are 
secured. 

THE   WELSH   PONY 

The  Welsh  pony  averages  nearly  one  hand  higher 
than  the  Shetland,  is  less  phlegmatic  and  hence  not 
quite  so  easily  handled  by  children  as  the  Shetland. 
However,  he  is  not  vicious  but  more  alert  and  quicker- 
motioned,  which  is  due,  possibly,  to  an  infusion,  at  some 
time,  of  Oriental  blood.  He  is  a  tough  little  fellow,  as 
are  most  ponies,  performing.,  like  the  mustang,  feats  of 
endurance  that  seem  incredible.  Many  of  them  have 
body  and  neck  lines  which  closely  approach  those  of 
well-built  small  horses.  At  the  same  time,  something  of 
the  pony  build  is  present.  When  all  of  these  character- 
istics are  harmoniously  combined,  the  result  is  a  most 
beautiful  and  valuable  animal.  Great  success  has  lately 
been  achieved  by  some  breeders  in  Wales  by  crossing  a 
hackney-pony  stallion  on  Welsh  mountain-pony  mares. 
See  illustration  (Fig.  27),  hackney-pony  stallion,  Julius 
CaBsar. 

EXMOOB,    DARTMOOR    AND    NEW    FOREST    PONIES 

In  the  breeding  of  Exmoors,  as  in  the  breeding  of 
Shetland  ponies,  distinctive  families  have  been  pro- 
duced. The  Exmoor  may  be  considered  the  parent  or 
foundation  stock  of  the  Dartmoor  and  the  New  Forest 
families  of  the  breed.  These  latter  are  so  nearly  identi- 


EX  MORE,   DART  MORE  AND  NEW  FOREST        131 

cal  with  the  Exmoor  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  for 
our  purpose  to  treat  them  separately.  In  fact,  the  Welch 
pony,  the  Exmoor,  the  Dartmoor  and  the  New  Forest 
are  sometimes  so  nearly  alike  as  to  deceive  good  judges 


FIG.  26.     Movement,     Welsh  pony  gelding. 
Owned  by  John  Jones  &  Sons,  Colwyn  Bay,  North  Wales,  England 

when  an  animal  of  one  breed  or  variety  is  offered  as 
belonging  to  another.  There  are  no  distinguishing 
colors  in  any  of  these  breeds  of  ponies,  and  one 
sometimes  merges  so  closely  into  another  in  size  and 
characteristics,  that  but  few  persons  can  accurately  clas- 
sify them  off-hand.  Then,  too,  a  family  or  variety  name 


132 


THE    HORSE 


is  frequently  used  as  a  breed  name.  Even  the  marked 
characteristics  of  breeds  and  varieties,  such  as  size, 
markings  and  activity,  differ  so  little  that  it  is  often 


FlG.  27.    Julius  Caesar  II  (5666). 
Owned  by  John  Jones  &  Sons,  Colwyn  Bay,  North  Wales,  England 

impossible    to    distinguish    one    from    another    unless 
typical  specimens  of  both  are  present  for  comparison 
There    is    a    constant    multiplication    of     breeds    and 


THE    USEFULNESS    OF   THE  MUSTANG  133 

subbreeds,  and  this  tends  to  confuse  those  who  purchase 
the  animals,  while  it  gives  opportunity,  on  the  part  of 
the  seller,  to  misrepresent  without  being  detected.  How- 
ever, multiplication  of  breeds  and  subbreeds  tends  to 
promote  improvement.  An  honest,  vigorous  rivalry  is 
indicative  of  growth  and  progress.  The  "battle  of  the 
breeds  "  may  leave  some  slain  by  the  wayside,  but  the 
fittest  survive.  The  cyclonic  arguments  which  period- 
ically take  place  with  some  classes  of  breeders  of  live 
stock  clear  the  atmosphere. 


MUSTANGS 

The  pure  mustang  traces  directly  back  to  the  Spanish 
horse,  being  the  offspring  of  horses  escaped  from 
domestication.  The  horses  brought  from  Spain  during 
the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  1519-22,  formed  the  foundation 
stock  for  this  hardy,  vicious,  wiry,  unreliable,  smoky- 
dun,  yellow-clay,  mouse -white  or  pink-roan,  piebald, 
everlasting,  bucking  mustang.  The  forces  of  nature 
might  have  made  a  more  erratic  horse  and  one  of 
tougher  material,  but  never  did.  Happily,  the  same 
conditions  which  produced  the  horse  produced  a  man 
able  to  tame  and  ride  him.  No  other  horse  could  have 
withstood  the  uses  to  which  he  was  put,  and  no  other 
man  but  the  plains -man  could  have  put  a  horse  to  such 
uses  and  abuses.  The  early  civilization  and  conditions, 
and  the  climate,  produced  men  who  were  not  content 
unless  something  as  exciting  as  lassoing  a  Texas  steer, 
fighting  wild  Indians  or  riding  the  wilder  mustang  were 
a  daily  pastime.  The  mustang  has  been  a  most  helpful 


134 


THE    HORSE 


little  brute,  and  has  played  an  important  part  in  the 
substitution  of  sleek  grade  Herfords  and  Short -horns 
for  the  bull -headed  bison  and  the  treacherous  coyote. 
Juicy,  marbleized  steaks  have  been  substituted  for  the 
dry,  leathery,  tough  bison  meat;  and  farms  and  homes, 


Permission  of  Breeders'  Gazette 

FIG.  28.    Gaited  broncho.    American-bred 

corn  and  cattle,  and  "God's  country"  have  taken  the 
place  of  the  wigwam,  the  Indian,  the  coyote  and  the 
desert.  Without  him,  the  wild  hordes  of  the  rocky  fort- 
resses, and  the  illimitable  windy  plains  now  burning 
hot,  now  bleak  and  cold  as  Iceland,  would  not  have  been 
settled  and  civilized  for  many  long  years.  But  for  the 


INDIAN  AND    CREOLE  PONIES  135 

pony,  communication  could  not  have  been  had  between 
the  west  and  the  east  in  the  pioneer  days.  The  pony 
overland  express  was  as  useful  and  as  necessary  in  its 
day  as  are  the  transcontinental  railways  in  our  times. 

THE   INDIAN   PONY 

The  Indian  pony  is  an  offshoot  of  the  mustang.  As 
the  mustang  drifted  northward,  he  found  a  colder 
climate  and,  if  not  a  more  exacting,  a  less  intelligent 
owner.  While  the  pony  was  ridden  by  the  brave,  he 
was  petted  and  starved  in  turn  by  the  squaw.  He  was 
often  called  on  to  perform  tasks  which  tried  his  courage 
to  its  utmost.  What  with  close  familiarity  with  the 
family  and  periods  of  semi -starvation  during  inclem- 
ent winters,  as  he  drifted  northward  he  lost  something 
of  size  and  power  to  perform,  and  much  of  the  erratic 
temper  due  to  his  Spanish -Mexican  origin.  Like  the 
mustang,  he  is  found  in  many  colors.  When  well  nour- 
ished he  inclines  to  be  more  rotund  than  the  mustang. 
Some  writers  have  suggested  that  this  is  due,  in  part,  to 
a  cross  with  the  small  horses  of  Canada.  However  this 
may  be,  there  is  not  enough  mixture  of  blood  to  hide 
the  prominent  mustang  characteristics. 

CREOLES 

The  little  Creole  pony  is  prized  in  some  portions  of 
Louisiana.  They  have  been  called  "pocket  editions  of 
the  thoroughbred  race -horse."  When  crossed  with  the 
Shetland,  ponies  are  often  produced  which  are  not  only 
lively  and  hardy  but  gentle  as  well. 


136  THE    HORSE 

There  are  several  valuable  breeds  of  ponies  in  South 
America.  Those  of  the  pampas  are  numerous  and  are 
from  the  same  foundation  stock  as  are  those  of  North 
America.  All  of  the  native  breeds  and  varieties  of 
ponies, —  and  there  are  many  of  both  in  North  and 
South  America, —  trace  back  to  those  found  roaming 
wild  over  plains  and  pampas;  and  these,  in  turn,  go 
back  to  a  common  ancestry  — the  smallish,  warm- 
blooded horses  of  Spain.  Within  the  last  few  years, 
all  of  the  ponies  of  the  plains  have  become  modified, 
and  it  is  not  now  easy  to  find  typical  specimens  of  the 
ponies  of  half  a  century  ago. 

The  ponies  of  the  plains  are  not  inferior  brood- 
mares, considering  their  diminutive  size.  They  range 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  hands  high  and  in  weight  from 
six  hundred  to  nine  hundred  pounds.  If  mated  with  the 
large  breeds,  their  progeny  reaches  a  fair  size.  The 
blood  of  the  ponies,  when  judiciously  mingled  with  the 
phlegmatic  draft  breeds, — that  is,  when  the  difference  in 
the  size  of  sire  and  dam  is  not  too  great, — results  in  a 
fair -sized,  active,  good-tempered,  courageous  animal, 
suitable  for  moderate  driving,  the  plow  or  light  draft. 
So  the  Indian  and  mustang  ponies  have  furnished  some 
good  acclimated  brood-mares,  without  which  the  farmer 
and  the  breeder  of  the  western  plains  would  have  been 
greatly  inconvenienced  in  early  days,  in  the  production 
of  the  commoner's  horse.  With  good  roads  and  the 
increase  of  toilsome,  productive  work  and  wealth,  must 
come  the  roadster,  the  coacher  and  the  draft-horse,  the 
stylish  saddler  and  the  children's  safe  horse.  Like  the 
Indians,  these  ponies  become  subject  to  that  inexorable 


PRODUCING  POLO  PONIES  137 

law,  "the  survival  of  the  fittest,"  which  is  not  stayed 
long  by  wish  or  will  or  painstaking  effort. 

THE    POLO    PONY 

In  recent  years  a  demand  has  sprung  up  for  a  pony 
somewhat  different  from  any  yet  described.  A  wiry, 
active,  courageous  animal,  of  good  temper  and  unex- 
celled endurance.  He  should  be  from  thirteen  and  a  half 
to  fourteen  and  a  half  hands  high.  Polo  ponies  larger 
than  this  are  considered  too  tall,  as  they  place  the  rider 
too  far  from  his  work.  The  small  pony,  one  below  thir- 
teen hands,  has  not  the  speed,  activity  or  power  neces- 
sary to  carry  the  rider  successfully  through  a  sharply 
contested  game  of  polo.  Of  course,  an  ideal  polo  pony 
can  be  produced  only  by  a  liberal  admixture  of  the 
Arabian  or  Oriental  blood  with  that  of  selected  mares 
of  the  Welch  or  Exmoor  type,  or  with  suitably  shaped 
small  mares  which  already  have  some  of-  the  warm-blood 
characteristics.  The  best-tempered  mustang  or  Indian 
mares  would  form  most  excellent  foundation  stock,  on 
the  dam's  side,  for  the  production  of  an  American  breed 
of  polo  ponies.  (See  Fig.  4,  Chap.  III.)  If  the  Ara- 
bian blood  were  once  harmoniously  united  with  the  blood 
of  the  plains,  the  foundation,  at  least,  would  be  laid  of 
a  breed  of  horses  upon  which  an  unexcelled  breed  of 
ponies  suited  to  polo  and  other  similar  work  could 
speedily  be  reared.  The  foundation  stock  for  such  a 
breed,  though  scattered,  is  abundant.  Where  is  the 
genius  who  will  take  up  the  work  of  uniting  the  valu- 
able scattered  potential  forces,  and  thus  produce  a  breed 


138  THE    HORSE 

of  ponies,  or  small  horses,  which,  if  good,  are  likely  to 
be  much  in  demand  in  the  near  future.  It  certainly 
would  not  be  as  difficult  to  produce  a  breed,  or  at  all 
events  a  variety,  of  ponies  at  least  as  well  suited  to  the 
special  needs  of  Americans  as  are  the  trotters,  pacers 
and  roadsters.  There  certainly  is  a  large  place  for  good 
small  horses  and  ponies,  as  well  as  for  large  and  fast 
ones.  Now  that  good  foundation  stock  is  at  hand  for 
forming  such  a  class  of  horses,  it  would  be  unfortunate 
if  the  opportunity  were  lost.  Must  we  be  importing  for- 
ever, or  shall  we  be  wise  and  produce  animals  worthy 
of  being  exported  to  the  best  high-priced  markets  of 
Europe  * 


CHAPTER    XI 

DRAFT- HOESES— CLYDESDALE,    ENGLISH    SHIEE, 
SUFFOLK    PUNCH 

ONE  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest  breed  of  British 
draft -horse,  is  the  Clydesdale.  As  a  variety,  they 
attracted  attention  as  early  as  1715;  but  it  was  long 
afterward  before  they  assumed  that  uniformity  of 
character  and  potency  which  should  be  possessed  by 
any  class  of  animals  before  it  can  properly  be  called  a 
breed.  There  appear  to  be  good  reasons  for  believing, 
and  the  most  trusted  authorities  assert,  that  all  of  the 
heavy  draft -breeds  trace  back  to  the  wild  Black  Horse 
of  Europe.  This  would  seem  to  be  a  fair  conclusion, 
since  it  is  not  probable  that  large  draft -horses  were 
developed  from  light,  high -mettled,  oriental  foundation 
stock;  though,  without  doubt,  most,  if  not  all  of  the 
draft -breeds  have  some  admixture  of  warm  blood. 
Horse-breeders  from  time  immemorial  have  been  fond 
of  trying  experiments;  hence  heavy  stallions  were,  as 
they  are  now,  sometimes  bred  to  mixed-blooded  mares, 
and  not  infrequently  desirable  female  offspring  resulted. 
These  were  then  used  to  beget  other  offspring.  Selec- 
tions were  then  made  according  to  the  consensus  of 
opinion  of  the  best  breeders,  usually  in  a  somewhat 
restricted  district,  as  to  the  characteristics  and  qualities 
most  desired. 

(139) 


140  THE    HORSE 

Almost  nothing  is  known  of  the  method  by  which 
the  blood  of  the  original  Black  Horse  of  Europe  was 
transformed  into  the  Flemish  draft -horse.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  at  an  early  period,  a  heavy,  rotund,  short -legged 
draft-animal,  somewhat  similar  in  type  to  the  Clydesdale 


FlG.  29.    Lord  Stewart,  Clydesdale  stallion 
Seaham  Harbour  Stud,  Seaham  Harbour,  England 

of  the  present  day,  had  been  developed  in  Flanders. 
These,  or  their  progeny,  in  a  more  or  less  pure  form, 
appear  to  have  been  used  to  give  the  desired  weight 
and  form  to  nascent  varieties  of  heavy  horses  in  Great 
Britain  and  France,  and  probably  in  other  European 
countries  as  well.  However,  the  Flemish  type  has  been 


UNIVE 


N   OF   THE   GLIDES  141 


so  changed,  both  in  France  and  Great  Britain,  as  to 
lose  many  of  its  original  characteristics.  Hence,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  more  or  less  of  the  blood 
of  the  British  and  French  draft  -horses  is  of  Flemish 
origin,  these  modern  breeds  are  justly  entitled  to  the 
names  they  bear,  as  they  are  a  new  production  rather 
than  an  improvement  of  the  old  Flemish  breed. 

The  memory  of  Mr.  John  Patterson,  of  Lochyloch, 
Scotland,  pioneer  in  draft  -horse  breeding,  and  Robert 
Bakewell,  pioneer  in  the  breeding  of  mutton  sheep, 
should  be  honored  and  preserved;  for  they  gave  an 
impetus  to  the  improvement  of  live  stock  which  is 
still  felt  wherever  superior  farm  animals  are  loved  and 
prized.  Some  time  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Mr.  Patterson  brought  from  England  a  Flemish 
stallion,  which  is  said  to  have  so  greatly  improved  the 
draft-horses  of  Upper  Ward  as  to  make  them  noted 
all  over  Scotland,  and  in  portions  of  England. 

Description.  —  The  color  of  the  modern  Clyde  is  gen- 
erally bay  or  brown,  sometimes  with  and  sometimes 
without  white  markings,  thougn  blacks  and  sorrels  are 
occasionally  seen.  The  white  is  usually  confined  to  a 
strip  in  the  face,  "blaze,"  and  the  lower  part  of  the  legs. 
Formerly  the  colors  were  not  so  dark,  nor  were  the 
animals  so  well  formed  as  they  are  at  the  present  time. 
They  still  occasionally  retain  some  of  their  old  charac- 
teristics of  shape  and  color.  The  flanks,  the  inside  of 
the  thighs  and  the  belly  are  frequently  a  light  bay, 
fading  out  in  the  less-exposed  parts  to  a  dun.  The 
Clyde  belongs  to  the  large  breeds,  the  stallions  weighing 
from  1,500  to  2,000  pounds,  and  mares  from  1,300  to 


DESCRIPTION  OF    THE"  CLYDE  143 

1,600,  although  specimens  of  heavier  weights  are 
sometimes  found.  The  Clyde  is  tall,  sixteen  to  seven- 
teen hands,  rangey,  yet  smooth  and  symmetrical,  with 
long  head,  medium  or  rather  short  neck,  strong,  short 
legs  heavily  fringed  below  the  knee  with  hair,  "feather," 
and  unusually  long,  slanting  shoulders  for  a  draft -breed. 
The  length  of  shoulder  and  the  rather  unusual  slant 
indicate  activity  and  ease  of  movement.  They  have  a 
kind,  quiet  disposition,  good  courage*  and  quite  enough 
spirit  for  heavy  work.  Some  of  the  horses  first  imported 
had  poor  feet  and  too  long  limbs.  Recent  importations 
show  great  improvement,  not  only  in  these  two  points 
but  in  others  as  well.  Some  of  the  Clydes  are  too  small 
at  the  waist,  "  wasp-waisted,"  in  which  case  the  floating 
ribs  are  too  short  and  the  flank  is  too  high.  Both  of 
these  characteristics,  as  well  as  the  too  steep  rump,  were 
observable  in  some  of  the  earlier  importations.  How- 
ever, it  should  be  said  that  if  the  flank  were  bred  down 
too  low  it  would  interfere  with  the  long,  rapid  stride  for 
which  the  Clyde  is  especially  noted.  Then,  too,  the  feet 
of  this  breed,  like  those  of  all  other  draft-breeds,  are 
not  always  so  good  as  might  be  desired.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  few  or  none  of  these  defects  are  discover- 
able in  the  better  specimens  of  the  modern  Clyde. 

Clydesdale,  the  valley  of  the  Clyde  river,  which 
extends  with  its  tributaries  through  the  counties  of 
Renfrewand  Lanark,  is  fertile  and  moist,  and  hence  it 
is  often  difficult  to  secure  horses  with  as  hard  and 
cylindrical  feet  as  desired.  All  large  draft- breeds 
incline  to  be  flat-footed.  Abundant  hair,  "feather,"  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  legs,  is  objectionable  in  many 


144 


THE   HORSE 


parts  of  the  United  States.  Fortunately,  American- 
reared  Clydesdales  show  a  marked  diminution  of 
"feather,"  and  improvement  in  the  shape  and  character 
of  the  feet.  Especially  is  this  true  in  locations  of  light 


Fra.  31.    Borthwick.     Imported  Clydesdale  stallion. 
Owned  by  Alex.  Galbraith,  Esq.,  Janesville,  Wis. 

rainfall  and  abundant  sunshine.  Occasionally  we  still 
see  "wasp-waisted"  and  "  goose  -rumped"  Clydes,  but 
they  are  becoming  more  and  more  rare.  Better  horses 
are  now  being  bred  in  Great  Britain;  and  better  horses 
are  being  imported,  and  far  better  judgment  is  being 
exercised  in  mating  and  rearing  in  the  United  States, 


BREED   BUILDING  145 

than  formerly.  The  result  is  a  large  number  of  really 
superior  Clydes  and  a  relatively  small  number  of  poor, 
unsymmetrical  animals. 

The  attempt  is  often  made  to  show  that  a  breed 
originates  from  one  or  a  few  animals  of  note,  whereas  such 
animals  only  improve  or  accentuate  desirable  qualities. 
They  may  be,  and  usually  are,  the  first  mile-stones 
from  which  the  history  and  records  of  the  breed  are 
made  up,  so  it  has  become  customary  to  give  credit,  as 
the  parent  stock  of  the  breed,  to  a  few  animals  which 
showed  marked  improvement  over  other  animals  of 
similar  characteristics.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  power 
to  produce  specimens  above  the  average  was  present, 
though  usually  latent,  in  the  ancestors  which  preceded 
the  specimens  which  showed  marked  variations  for  the 
better.  The  valuable  and  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  a  breed  are  not  produced  in  a  day  or  in  a  single 
generation.  They  come  by  slow  growth,  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  evolution.  However,  for  convenience 
in  writing  up  the  inception  and  development  of  a  breed, 
we  start  with  one  or  a  few  more  or  less  noted  animals, 
and  largely  or  entirely  ignore  the  ancestry  which  lies 
back  of  them.  From  a  few  more  or  less  distinguished 
animals,  the  breed  begins  and  is  usually  developed  by 
in -breeding  for  a  few  generations.  When  a  breed  is 
being  formed,  often  little  is  known  of  the  ancestors  of 
the  females  which  are  bred  to  the  selected  foundation - 
males.  Several  generations  may  elapse  before  an 
attempt  is  made  to  exclude  from  the  Dieed,  especially 
on  the  female  side,  animals  which  have  less  than 
seven -eighths  of  the  selected  or  approved  ancestry. 


146 


THE    HORSE 


The  terra  "full  blood"  has  been  an  extremely  in- 
definite one,  and  when  applied  to  recently  formed 
breeds  is  still  so.  The  flexible  rules  observed  when  a 
breed  is  being  formed,  instead  of  being  a  hindrance, 


rmisston  of  F.  S.  Peer 


FIG.  32.    Clydesdale  mare 


are,  in,  fact,  a  great  help,  as  they  give  wide  opportunity 
for  selecting  the  best  animals  and  for  making  such 
crosses  and  combinations  as  give  promise  of  securing 
improvement.  The  improvement  once  secured,  "in- 
breeding," to  some  extent,  must  be  resorted  to,  or 
the  improvement  is  likely  to  disappear.  (See  Chapter 
XIII).  However  much  the  historian  may  be  interested 
in  the  early  history  of  the  breed, — which  too  often  is 
lamentably  contradictory, —  it  does  not  follow  that  the 


ENGLISH  SHIRE  147 

busy  farmer,  or  even  the  agricultural  student,  should 
go  into  the  innumerable  petty  historical  details,  many 
of  which  are  unverified.  It  is  far  better  to  learn  the 
characteristics  of  a  good  animal,  secure  him,  and  then 
acquire  the  skill  and  knowledge  necessary  to  preserve 
the  standard  of  excellence  already  attained;  or  better 
still,  to  raise  the  standard  higher.  It  matters  little 
now  whether  the  ancestor  of  your  horse,  fifteen  gene- 
rations removed,  was  Flying  Childers,  Periwinkle  or 
Snodgrass.  Those  who  desire  a  more  extended  historical 
sketch  than  is  here  given  can  secure  it  by  reading 
some  of  the  works  devoted  to  this  breed. 

ENGLISH    SHIRE 

This  breed  of  horses  is  so  nearly  like  the  Clydesdale 
that  it  hardly  merits  a  distinctive  name.  It  would  be 
less  misleading  if  it  were  called  English  Clydesdale. 
Most  characteristics  are  common  to  both  breeds.  The 
Shires  brought  to  the  United  States  are,  as  a  rule, 
splendid  animals.  They  are  close -ribbed,  have  a  trifle 
shorter  legs,  and  are  a  shade  larger  than  the  Clydesdale. 
Whether  these  slight  changes  have  been  brought  about 
largely  by  selection,  or  by  a  slight  infusion  of  some 
closely  allied  blood,  or  by  both,  we  do  not  know,— 
and  it  matters  little  whether  the  petty  details  of  the 
methods  used  are  ever  known.  It  is  enough  to  know 
that  the  Shire  horse  gets  a  grand  inheritance  in  the 
main,  if  not  entirely,  from  that  valuable  old  breed,  the 
Clydesdale.  Perhaps  it  may  be  well,  after  all,  that  this 
off -shoot  of  the  Clydesdale  has  been  given  another  name, 


148  THE   HORSE 

since    it    will    create    an    honest    rivalry   between    the 
breeders  of  these  two  breeds. 

It  is  customary  to  use  illustrations  of  the  most  per- 
fect horses  of  a  breed,  and  not  infrequently  the  camera 


FIG.  33.    Dunsmore  Combination  (17314), 
Owned  by  Thomas  Ewart,  Dunsmore  Home  Farm,  Rugby,  England 

and  the  artist  improve  the  original.  The  breeders  of 
dairy  cows  quickly  learned  which  end  of  the  animal  to 
place  nearest  the  camera.  In  photographing  horses,  it  is 
more  undesirable  to  change  the  normal  perspective;  for, 
in  foreshortening  lines,  symmetry  of  form  is  distorted. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  DISCUSSED         149 

Perhaps  it  is  well  to  use  the  very  best  animals  for 
illustration  since  it  results  in  producing  in  the  mind 
an  ideal,  however  difficult  it  may  be  to  attain  to  it.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  amateur  breeder,  whose  expectations 
have  become  great  by  reason  of  such  beautiful  illustra- 
tions, is  sometimes  greatly  disappointed  when  his  efforts 
fall  far  short  of  his  expectations,  founded  on  illustra- 
tions in  the  books.  He  has  his  animal  photographed  for 
the  purpose  of  placing  a  true  picture  at  the  head  of  his 
handbill,  but  he  discards  it  for  a  made-up  one,  which 
the  untrained  eye  does  not  detect  as  an  impossible  horse. 
Such  breeders  may  succeed  in  producing  good  animals; 
but,  falling  far  short  of  their  ideals,  they  lose  interest 
and  go  out  of  the  business  in  disgust;  So  it  may  be  well 
to  warn  the  beginner  that  the  top  is  reached  only  by 
long-continued  effort.  The  road  to  the  summit  is  steep 
and  rough,  and  strewn  with  the  bones  of  many  common- 
place horses.  The  horse,  like  other  living  things,  is 
responsive  to  environment,  and  changes  rapidly  for  the 
worse  if  the  conditions  of  his  life  become  less  congenial, 
his  food  less  plentiful,  or  less  nourishing,  and  his 
work  more  difficult,  than  in  the  past.  The  standard  of 
excellence  attained  by  slow,  painstaking,  laborious 
effort  during  two  centuries  is  so  high  that  it  requires  a 
genius  even  to  maintain  it;  so  the  young  farmer  should 
not  be  disappointed  if  he  is  unable  to  produce  horses 
that  fully  meet  his  desires  or  the  high  standard  of 
excellence. 

The  illustrations  should  be  studied  closely  and  the 
living  animals  as  well;  and  not  only  should  those  of  the» 
draft -breeds  be  compared,  but  those  of  the  lighter 


GOOD  PICTURES  151 

breeds  with  those  of  the  heavy  breeds.  The  student  of 
Animal  Industry  has  become  careless  and  unappreciative 
of  the  educational  value  of  the  fine  illustrations  which 
have  become  so  common.  The  man  with  uneducated 
tastes  often  treats  them  more  carelessly  than  he  does  a 


Kindness  of  Mark  L  *ne  hxtress,  London.  England 
FIG.  35.     Shire  Filly,  Tattou  Bessie 

circus -dodger.  If  the  farmer  had  no  other  good  pictures 
in  his  house  than  those  contained  in  the  "Breeders' 
Gazette"  of  December  19,  1900,  he  would  have  a 
respectable  picture  gallery  of  our  larger  domestic 
animals.  I  only  regret  that  the  size  of  the  page  in  this 
book  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  published  do 
not  permit  of  more  and  larger  illustrations. 


152 


THE    HOUSE 


SUFFOLK    PUNCH 


The  origin  of  this  breed  is  obscure.  Some  have 
supposed  that  his  color  indicates  that  the  foundation 
stock  was  produced  by  crossing  stallions  from  France, 


FIG.  36.     Suffolk  Punch  stallion 
Property  of  Alex.  Galbraith,  Esq.,  Janesville,  Wis. 

•supposedly  gray,  and  Suffolkshire  mares,  supposedly 
bay,  which,  it  is  assumed,  would  produce  sorrels. 
Neither  the  form  nor  the  color  of  this  breed  gives  any 
clear  evidence  of  the  breed  having  been  formed  by 
such  admixture.  All  over  Great  Britain,  stout  sorrel 
horses  have  been  common  from  time  immemorial. 
The  crude  material  was  at  hand;  all  it  wanted  was 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF  SUFFOLK  PUNCH        153 

some  one  with  the  instincts  of  a  Bakewell  to  produce 
a  breed  of  sorrel,  bay,  black,  or  piebald  color.  This 
breed  should  be  none  the  less  prized  because  little 
or  nothing  is  certainly  known  of  its  early  history, 
which  began  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

The  Suffolks,  like  all  other  breeds  of  horses,  have 
been  greatly  improved  during  the  last  third  of  the 
century  just  closed.  The  feet  are  now,  as  a  rule,  good. 
The  breed  has  more  of  the  short,  rotund  build  than 
the  two  breeds  previously  mentioned,  or  the  Percherons. 
The  number  in  the  United  States  is  relatively  small  as 
compared  with  the  Clydes  and  Percherons,  although 
the  breed  as  a  whole,  as  seen  in  America,  strikes  one 
as  having  the  ideal,  harmonious  proportion  of  parts, 
and  conformation  which  should  indicate  endurance  and 
power.  A  more  extended  test  of  them  and  their  grade 
offspring  will  fully  reveal  how  much  they  have  of 
courage,  with  patience  and  endurance  under  severe 
usage, —  both  of  which  should  be  prominent  character- 
istics in  any  draft  breed.  The  Clydesdales  and  Per- 
cherons were  first  in  the  field,  and,  both  being  good, 
it  is  not  easy  tc  supplant  them. 

Description. — The  color  of  the  Suffolk  is  more  uni- 
form than  that  of  most  other  breeds,  being  almost 
invariably  sorrel  of  some  shade, — not  infrequently 
so  dark  as  to  take  on  the  semi -dappled,  darkish,  rich 
chestnut  hue.  Not  quite  so  tall  or  heavy  as  the  Clydes 
or  Shires,  but  ranging  in  height  from  fifteen  and  one- 
half  to  sixteen  and  one -half  hands,  and  in  weight  from 
1,400  to  1,800  pounds.  The  shoulders  are  of  true  draft 


HONEST  DIFFERENCES   OF   OPINION  155 

form,  not  being  too  oblique;  shortish  neck  and  legs, 
clean  head  and  limbs. 

One  cannot  help  getting  the  impression  that  they 
have  not  so  much  spirit  nor  so  long  a  stride  as  the 
Clydesdale.  Be  that  as  it  may,  they  are  a  valuable 
addition  to  our  draft  breeds,  and  time  alone  can  reveal 
whether  or  not  they  can  win  their  way  to  equally  popu- 
lar favor  with  the  two  leading  breeds. 

No  breed  or  animal  is  perfect;  every  breed  is  likely 
to  have  some  characteristic  defects.  There  are  few,  if 
any,  animals  so  perfect  but  that  we  would  like  to  make 
some  slight  changes.  But  if  a  writer  points  out  a  slight 
defect  in  a  breed,  as  shown  when  large  numbers  of 
animals  are  inspected,  somebody  gets  hot  "under  the 
collar."  Then,  too,  honest  differences  of  opinion  too 
often  are  not  given  respectful  treatment.  Some  horse- 
men have  yet  to  learn  the  philosophy  of  agreeing  to 
disagree.  A  conservative  horseman  of  high  standing 
says,  "I  have  yet  to  find  a  writer  on  the  horse  who 
dared  to  call  attention  even  to  slight  defects  of  any  one 
of  the  modern  breeds  except  the  bronco."  On  this  little 
fellow  he  vents  all  his  spite;  and,  what  with  writers 
and  riders,  it  is  no  wonder  that  he  occasionally  strikes 
back  or  "bucks"  in  sheer  self-defence  of  his  long- 
acquired  right  to  freedom  and  self -protection. 


CHAPTER    XII 

FRENCH,    BELGIAN   AND    FLEMISH   DRAFT-HORSES 

FRANCE,  like  Great  Britain,  has  several  breeds  of 
draft-horses.  Standing  out  prominently,  as  superior  to 
all  others,  is  the  ancient  Percheron. 

He  has  a  most  interesting  history,  which  is  too 
voluminous  to  be  recorded  here.  The  student  will  be 
interested  in  perusing  "The  Percheron  Horse,"  by 
Charles  DuHays,  which,  through  the  efforts  of  William 
T.  Walters,  of  Baltimore,  has  been  translated.  The 
illustrations  enable  one  by  comparison  to  judge  of  the 
improvement  which  has  been  made  since  it  was  written. 
A  good  idea  of  the  general  character  of  the  best 
specimens  of  the  Percheron  before  the  breed  took  on 
its  present  distinctive  draft  tyj>e  may  be  secured  by 
studying  the  illustration  of  Success.  (Fig.  38.) 

Neither  the  kind,  number  nor  character  of  the 
French  horse  is  known  prior  to  the  battle  of  Tours. 
In  732,  the  Saracen  chief,  Abderaine,  was  defeated  by 
Charles  Martel,  at  Tours,  in  one  of  the  most  famous 
battles  of  history.  The  invading  army,  300,000  of 
which  it  is  said  were  slain,  was  from  the  East,  as  were 
also  the  horses  which  the  cavalry  rode.  While  these 
horses  were  not  supposed  to  have  been  of  any  particular 
breed,  the  fact  that  they  were  from  the  Orient  gives 
assurance  that  they  were  not  of  the  heavy -draft 

(156) 


NOT   OF    THE   DRAFT   TYPE 


157 


type,  but  had,  without  doubt,  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  horses  which  later  were  used  to  give 
style,  stamina  and  speed  to  more  phlegmatic  varieties. 
The  large  number  of  eastern  horses  secured  as  a  part 


PIG.  38.    Success. 

Owned  by  M.  W.  Dunham,  Wayne,  111. 

An  indifferent  picture  of  an  historical  Percheron  before  the  breed  assumed 
the  heavy-draft  type 

of  the  spoils  of  victory  must  have  had  a  marked 
influence  on  the  native  horses  of  France.  As  time 
went  on,  agriculture  improved,  the  care  of  the  horse 
and  his  food  became  better  and  more  abundant,  and 
the  natural  result  followed  —  larger  and  better  horses. 


158  THE    HORSE 

War  still  continued  to  be  the  chief  and  paramount 
vocation  of  large  numbers  of  able-bodied  men.  As  im- 
plements of  warfare  were  improved  and  made  more 
deadly,  recourse  was  had  to  coats  of  mail  for  protection. 
At  first  these  were  of  light  weight,  but,  as  the  efficiency 
of  weapons  was  increased,  the  armor  was  also  increased 
in  weight,  until  it  not  infrequently  outweighed  the 
warrior  who  wrore  it.  Simultaneously  with  the  increase 
of  the  weight  to  be  carried,  came  an  increase  in  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  war-horse.  Just  how  this  was 
accomplished  is  not  certain,  but  it  is  believed  that 
resort  was  had  to  both  English  and  Danish  stallions. 
Later,  the  post -roads  opened  through  the  country  also 
had  an  effect  on  the  size  and  character  of  French 
horses  in  many  districts. 

The  change  from  the  old  type,  which  had  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Oriental  horse,  to  a  more  distinc- 
tive draft  type  was  accomplished  by  1760;  but,  between 
this  date  and  732,  many  unrecorded  influences  were 
operating,  without  doubt,  to  change  the  small  Arabian 
types  of  the  horses  of  LaPerche  to  a  larger  draft  type. 
As  late  as  1873,  I  saw  a  few  specimens  of  the  modified 
Oriental  horses  in  the  districts  which  had  long  since 
adopted  a  larger  animal  of  the  draft  type.  Up  to  1820, 
the  draft -horses  of  France  lacked  the  symmetry  and 
finish  which  they  now  possess.  It  is  not  an  easy  task  to 
harmoniously  unite  two  varieties  of  horses  so  dissimilar 
as  the  Oriental  and  the  English  draft.  Although  the 
draft-blood  was  introduced  as  early  as  1760,  up  to  1820 
it  had  not  been  satisfactorily  united  with  the  Oriental 
and  native  blood;  for,  about  the  latter  date,  a  system- 


EARLY  IMPORTATIONS  159 

atic  effort  was  made  by  the  Government  to  eliminate  the 
coarseness  which  had  been  introduced  by  the  free  and 
frequently  injudicious  use  of  draft-blood.  About  1820, 
two  noted  gray  Oriental  stallions,  Godolphin  and 
Gallipoli,  were  introduced  into  the  Government  stables 
at  Pin.  These  two  prepotent  stallions  fixed  the  style  of 
color  and  fastened  it  on  an  already  susceptible  breed. 
The  refining  process  went  on  rapidly  and  the  French 
heavy  horse  became  a  well-defined  prepotent  breed, 
which  still  shows  some  Arabian  characteristics  har- 
moniously united  with  prominent  draft  qualities.  The 
importation  of  these  horses  into  the  United  States 
began  about  1851,  twenty -five  years  before  the  publi- 
cation of  the  first  Percheron  stud-book  in  America. 
The  Percheron  Horse-breeders'  Association  is  the  oldest 
draft -horse  breeders'  society,  and  was  organized  and 
published  a  stud-book  several  years  before  the  Society 
Hippique  Percheronne  was  organized  in  France. 

G.  W.  Curtis  says,  "One  of  the  stallions  imported  in 
1851,  under  the  name  of  French  Horse,  was  sold  to 
Dillon  &  Co.,  of  Normal,  111.,  and  was  shown  under  the 
name  of  * Norman.'  The  early  importers  were  at  liberty 
to  give  any  distinctive  breed -name  to  the  animals 
imported,  for,  as  yet,  there  was  no  stud-book  in  France. 
Some  of  these  early  importations  were  from  the  old 
province  of  LaPerche,  some  from  Normandy,  some  were 
purchased  in  the  city  of  Paris,  and  some  were  gathered 
from  no  one  knows  where, — though  all  appeared  to  have 
the  general  characteristics  of  the  Percheron." 

It  will  readily  be  seen  how  natural  it  was,  under  the 
circumstances,  to  attach  different  breed -names  to  horses 


160 


THE    HORSE 


FIG.  39.    Percheron  stallion,  Calypso  25017  (44577) 
Imported  by  Dunham,  Fletcher  &  Coleman,  Oaklawn  Farm,  Wayne,  111. 

purchased  in  different  localities;  and,  the  name  being 
adopted,  right  or  wrong,  how  difficult  it  was  to  change 
it.  In  1876,  when  the  first  volume  of  the  stud-book  was 
being  prepared,  the  distinguishing  name  "Norman  "  was 
adopted.  Mr.  J.  H.  Saunders,  then  secretary  of  the 


MERIT  PLUS   BREEDING  161 

Stud -Book  Association,  changed  it  to  "Percheron 
Norman,"  which  name  was  afterward  ratified  by  the 
Association.  This  was  unsatisfactory  to  some  of  the 
importers  and  breeders  of  the  French  draft-horses, 
since  the  distinguishing  breed -name  which  had  been 
used  was  of  value,  being  in  the  nature  of  a  trade -mark. 
So  other  stud-book  societies  were  formed,  and  we  now 
have  three  of  them.  (See  Live  Stock  Registry  Associa- 
tions, Appendix.) 

All  this  is  unfortunate,  since  these  books,  as  well  as 
the  French  Stud -Book,  record  but  one  breed  of  horses. 
Then,  too,  these  various  registers  have  different  stan- 
dards for  admissions  to  registration.  The  Percheron 
society  requires  that  all  animals  imported  after  January 
1,  1884,  must  be  recorded  in  the  Percheron  Stud-Book 
of  France.  The  National  Register  of  Norman  Horses 
admits  all  draft-horses  of  French  draft-blood,  no 
matter  to  what  family  they  belong.  There  is  also  a 
stud-book  published  in  the  United  States  known  as  the 
National  Register  of  French  Draft- Horses,  with  some- 
what elastic  rules  for  registration. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  breeders  of  the  noble 
Percheron  should  have  become  divided  into  three  some- 
what hostile  camps,  and  still  more  unfortunate  that 
horses  should,  at  this  late  date,  be  admitted  to  regis- 
tration without  full  guarantee  of  breeding  and  of  merit. 
Far  better  make  the  rules,  even  of  the  Percheron  Stud- 
Book,  still  more  rigid,  and  allow  colts  only  a  provisional 
registration;  which  could  be  changed  to  permanent 
registration  when  they  reached  five  years  of  age;  if, 
after  examination,  they  were  found  to  be  worthy  of 


162  THE    HORSE 

propagating  the  breed.  We  must  adopt  something  of 
this  sort  for  all  the  breeds  if  we  ever  succeed  in  pre- 
serving the  high  standard  seen  in  recently  imported 
horses.  In  no  other  way  can  we  hope  to  produce  an 
American  variety  of  Percherons  better  adapted  for 
heavy  work  than  those  brought  over  at  great  pains 
and  expense.  The  Percheron  is  capable  of  improve- 
ment; why  not  have  a  home -breed  as  much  superior 
to  the  average  foreign  horse  as  the  American  Merino 
is  superior  to  the  imported  Spanish  Merino  ?  The 
breeders  of  trotters  and  Holstein  cattle  are  on  the 
right  track,  and  will  win  out  at  the  end. 

Already  something  is  being  done  to  change  the 
somewhat  objectionable  light  colors  to  dark  ones.  The 
coarse  heads  and  goose  rumps,  formerly  all  too  common 
in  all  of  the  draft-breeds,  are  becoming  rare,  and  they 
can  be  entirely  eliminated  only  by  official  and  rigid 
selection.  Our  government  is  not  paternal,  and  cannot 
and  should  not  do  this  work,  since  the  associations 
have  the  power  to  do  it,  and  can  do  it  better  than 
the  government  officials.  Which  society  will  be  the  first 
to  adopt  more  rigid  and  better  rules  for  registration 
of  horses  ? 

Description. — The  color  of  most  Percherons  is  gray 
of  varied  shades.  Sometimes  it  is  quite  light,  becoming 
nearly  pure  white  in  old  age.  Again,  the  striking  light 
and  dark  dapples  are  seen,  and  dark  grays,  almost 
black,  with  a  few  white  hairs.  Comparatively  few 
blacks  have,  as  yet,  been  bred,  although  dark  colors 
are  sought  and  are  more  common  than  formerly. 
The  American  purchaser  prefers  darker  rather  than 


Kindness  of  Breeders'  Gazette 


FIG.  41.    Deguardi  11340. 
Owned  by  Geo.  B.  and  Chas.  P.  McPherson,  Hereford,  S.  D. 


COLOR  AND    OTHER   CHARACTERISTICS         165 

lighter  colors;  hence  the  effort  in  France  is  to  produce 
darker  colored  animals  than  formerly.  So,  too,  in  the 
United  States,  dark  grays  are  sought  rather  than  light 
grays.  It  will  take  many  generations  to  entirely  elimi- 
nate the  light  colors,  so  long  one  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  breed;  but  this  will  be  accomplished  in  time  if 
Americans  persist  in  preferring  dark-  rather  than  light- 
colored  draft -horses.  This  preference  is  not  founded 
on  a  fad,  for,  other  things  being  equal,  dark-colored 
horses  are  to  be  preferred  to  light -colored  ones. 

The  body  of  the  Percheron  has  something  of  the 
pony  compactness.  Legs  shortish  with  massive  forearm, 
but  clean  and  closely  knit,  especially  below  the  knee, 
with  pastern -joint  free  from  "feather."  Most  specimens 
have  fine  heads.  The  true  Percheron  head  is  clean, 
expressive  in  all  parts,  of  moderate  size,  topped  with 
beautiful  ears  and  well  set  on  a  magnificent  flexible 
neck,  although  it  is  large  at  the  base,  where  it  is  broadly 
attached  to  rather  oblique  shoulders,  all  of  which  give 
the  appearance  of  strength  with  style  and  elasticity, 
with  no  suggestion  of  the  pig's  neck.  All  of  the  draft- 
breeds  are  remarkably  free  from  bone  diseases,  consid- 
ering their  great  weight  and  their  severe  work.  The 
draft -horse  of  whatever  breed  has  a  thick  skin,  which 
is  not  as  sensitive  as  is  the  skin  of  the  warm-blooded 
horse.  The  not  over-sensitive,  thickish  skin,  coupled 
with  difficult  work  and  great  weight,  all  tend  to  certain 
skin  diseases  which,  fortunately,  usually  only  injure  the 
symmetry  of  the  limbs  and  in  most  cases  are  of  a  mild 
character.  The  feet  are  firm,  and  usually  a  little  more 
rotund  and  erect  than  are  those  of  some  of  the  other 


166 


THE    HORSE 


draft-breeds.  The  weight  of  the  mature  Percheron 
stallion,  except  in  rare  cases,  is  from  1,500  to  1,800 
pounds,  and  that  of  the  mares  from  1,200  to  1,700. 
Grade  Percherons  are  quite  variable  in  weight,  owing  to 


FlG.  42.    Percheron  stallion,  Picador  27370  (48373). 
Owned  by  Dunham,  Fletcher  &  Coleman,  Oaklawn  Farm,  Wayne,  111. 

the   wide   difference    in    the   size   of   their  nondescript 
dams. 

The  illustrations,  it  is  hoped,  will  give  some  help  in 
the  study  of  both  the  dark-  and  the  light -colored 
Percherons;  but  the  reader  should  not  be  satisfied  until 
many  individuals  of  this  breed,  under  both  unfavorable 


STUD-BOOK   OF  APPROVED   HORSES  167 

and  ideal  conditions,  have  been  inspected.  Flesh  and 
comparative  idleness  combined  sometimes  deceive  the 
purchaser  as  to  harmony  and  beauty  of  outlines  and 
courage  and  endurance. 

FRENCH   DRAFT 

There  is  not  only  an  American  Stud -Book  for  record- 
ing the  Percherons,  but  one  for  the  French  draft  and 
one  for  Norman  horses  as  well.  We  have,  then,  three 
distinct  Stud -Books  for  recording  what  is  virtually  one 
breed  of  horses,  In  other  words,  we  have  a  sharp  dis- 
tinction without  a  difference.  If  fifty  horses  of  each  of 
these  groups  were  turned  loose  in  the  show -ring, 
neither  a  Frenchman  nor  an  American  could  place  the 
animals  correctly  by  groups.  This  is  confusing,  when 
the  beginner  starts  out  to  learn  something  of  draft- 
horses;  nevertheless,  good  is  likely  to  come  out  of  this 
war  of  breeds,  since  the  breeders  of  these  various 
French  horses  will  keep  up  a  sharp,  and,  it  is  hoped, 
peaceful  and  honest  rivalry.  Breaking  up  a  breed  into 
groups  sometimes  results  in  great  good.  In  time,  the 
survival  of  the  fittest  will  solve  many  questions  which 
arguments  and  a  multitude  of  words  fail  to  explain. 

Some  of  the  imported  French  horses  are  not  eligible 
to  record  in  the  Percheron  Stud -Book,  hence  there 
appears  to  be  good  reason  for  establishing  another  one. 
All  this  leads  to  the  question,  Why  not  establish 
another  Stud -Book  of  "Approved  American-French 
Draft-Horses,"  as  previously  outlined? 

It  is  not  necessary  separately  to  describe  either  the 


168  THE    HORSE 

French  draft  or  the  Norman,  as  the  description  of  the 
Percheron  already  given  will  suffice. 


BOULONNAIS 

This  variety  of  draft -horses  is  somewhat  larger  and 
not  so  active  as  are  the  Percherons.  Their  appearance 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  have  more  of  the  blood 
of  the  heavy  draft  or  Flemish,  and  less  of  the  Oriental 
blood,  than  the  Percheron,  which  they  somewhat  resem- 
ble. Though  closely  related  to  the  Percheron,  they  are 
coarser  in  make-up,  slower  of  movement  and  less  desir- 
able for  American  uses.  The  breed  takes  its  name  from 
the  city  of  Boulogne.  The  colors  are  variable.  Their 
most  appropriate  place  is  for  heavy  tandem  draft -teams 
in  the  streets  of  Paris.  They  are  not  prized  as  highly  in 
the  United  States  as  are  most  of  the  other  draft- breeds. 

BELGIAN     DRAFT  -  HORSE 

The  Belgian  horse  has  not  been  so  popular  in  the 
United  States  as  the  Clyde  and  the  Peivheron.  The 
reason  why  these  two  breeds  have  been  imported  and 
bred  in  far  greater  numbers  than  the  other  draft-breeds 
is  believed  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  both  of  these  breeds 
possess  not  only  good  draft  form,  but  superior  action, 
courage  and  style,  for  horses  produced  as  they  were, 
largely  from  the  phlegmatic  branch  of  the  genus  Equns 
Caballus.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  American  requires 
that  even  his  draft -horse  shall  not  pound  the  pavement 
too  heavily,  or  be  as  slow  and  as  unresponsive  as  an  ox. 


LONG    VS.   SHORT   NECKS 


1G9 


It  may  be,  that,  to  gratify  this  taste  of  the  American 
for  a  lively  stepper  and  a  "bit  chain  per,"  the  breeders, 
in  some  cases,  have 
produced  a  draft  - 
horse  with  too  long 
a  neck  and  too  slant- 
ing a  shoulder.  A 
distinguished  im- 
porter and  breeder 
once  said  to  me: 
"  The  '  toppy  '  horses 

sell,  but   the    short- 
necks,    while    less 

stylish,  wear  best." 
It  is  probable  that 

the  Belgian  has  lit- 
tle or  no  admixture 

of  "hot  blood."    He 

certainly   has    quite 

as  many  of  the  true 

draft  points  as  have 

the    two    breeds    so 

largely  admired.  The 

illustrations   of    the 

best  horses  of  the 

breed  show  a  larger 

horse     than      the 

Clyde;    the  neck    is 

shorter,  the  breast  wider,  and  the  whole  body -formation 

more  blocky  than  is  usually  seen  in  the  Clydesdales,  and 

he  has  less  feather  than  the  Clyde. 


Jj'lG.  4:5.     BriliUtit  Du  Hasquet. 
Owned  by  Hmivv  Lefebure,  Fairfax,  Iowa 


170 


THE    HORSE 


FlG.  44.    Colonel  De  Dompiere. 
Owned  by  Henry  Lefebure,  Fairfax,  Iowa 

It  is  a  good  thing  for  the  horse  industry  that  there 
are  not  only  breeds  of  widely  divergent  characteristics, 
but  also  breeds  so  slightly  different  as  to  'deceive  the 
experts  unless  the  breed  name  is  placarded.  All  this 
serves  to  educate  the  eye  and  the  judgment,  as  well 
as  to  form  interesting  topics  for  discussion. 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   THE   BELGIAN  171 

Horses  imported  since  1888  must  be  registered  in 
the  Government  Register  of  Belgium  (Society  of  Bel- 
gia  Stock  Farmers),  to  be  eligible  for  registration  in 
the  American  Register. 

Description. — Color  usually  bay,  dark  and  light 
browns  —  all  good  colors.  They  are  somewhat  larger 
than  the  Percherons.  Selected  mature  stallions,  such  as 
are  usually  imported,  weigh  from  1,700  to  2,20*)  pounds, 
and  mature  mares  from  1,5 JO  to  1,900  pounds.  The 
head  is  reasonably  small;  neck  short  and  very  power- 
ful; chest  wide  and  deep;  back  short  and  broad;  close- 
ribbed,  and  full  over  kidneys;  hips  fairly  long,  broad, 
smooth  and  symmetrical;  legs  short,  flat,  arm  heavy- 
muscled,  with  the  usual  open,  rather  low  heel  of  the 
draft  breeds.  This  breed  has  not  been  as  popular  as 
the  Percherons  and  the  Clydes.  Probably  this  is  due 
to  its  build,  which  indicates  a  breed  of  less  activity 
than  the  two  great  leading  draft  breeds  adopted  by 
the  Americans.  As  seen  in  his  native  country  he  does 
not  strike  one  as  having  the  long,  elastic,  quick  stride 
of  the  Scotch  or  French  draft -horse. 

THE   FLEMISH   HORSE 

The  modern  Flemish  and  Belgian  horses  are  the 
giants  of  their  race.  Springing  from  a  common  ances- 
try, bred  under  similar  conditions,  put  to  common 
uses,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  two  breeds  are  very  simi- 
lar. They  are  tall  with  heavy  bodies,  but  sometimes  the 
true  muscular  development  is  not  in  harmony  with  the 
bone  structure.  The  color  is  usually  bay  or  brown,  both 


ADAPTATION   TO    USE  173 

good.  The  collars  used  are  not  infrequently  built  up  on 
the  sides  and  the  hames  extend  well  above  the  collars, 
the  ends  being  curved  and  furnished  with  bright  metal 
mountings,  giving  a  brave  look  to  the  horse  so  much 
admired  by  the  Belgians.  In  harness  the  Flemish  horses 
have  a  massive  and  superlatively  strong  appearance, 
especially  when  viewed  from  the  front.  They  and  their 
congeners,  the  Belgians,  are  in  common  use  on  farms  in 
most  parts  of  Belgium1;  but  they  are  too  large  for  Amer- 
ican farm  work,  arid,  above  all,  they  do.  not  please  the 
American  boy,  who  wants  a  horse  that  can  pull  anything 
that  is  loose  at  one  end  or  out -pull  any  other  horse  of 
the  same  size,  and  out-trot  and  out-jump  and  out-run 
any  other  horse  in  the  settlement.  He  will  become 
weaned  from  this  extreme  notion,  in  time,  and  learn  to 
breed  horses  adapted  to  the  soil  on  which  they  are 
reared  and  to  the  specific  work  which  they  will  be 
called  upon  to  perform.  The  Belgian  draft  will  fill  a 
demand  and  find  an  appropriate  place  in  the  large  man- 
ufacturing cities. 

1  West  Flanders  and  East  Flanders  are  now  provinces,  or  counties, 
of  Belgium,  and  not  a  distinct  country. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

PRINCIPLES    OF    BREEDING 

THE  breeding  of  horses  is  usually  carried  ou,  first, 
in  order  to  procure  directly  or  indirectly  the  necessaries 
of  life,  and,  second,  to  secure  a  profit.  Occasionally 
they  are  bred  simply  for  pleasure  or  pastime. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss  here  what 
amount  of  surplus  or  reserve  it  is  best  to  accumulate, 
or  how  fully  the  so-called  necessaries  of  life  should 
be  supplied,  in  order  that  man  may  arrive  at  his  best 
estate.  We  enter  at  once,  therefore,  upon  the  discussion 
of  the  laws  and  forces  which  underlie  animal  life  and 
reproduction,  growth,  development  and  change,  with 
the  paramount  object  of  increasing  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  of  diminishing  labor, 
of  increasing  knowledge,  and  of  adding  to  the  world's 
surplus  and  pleasure. 

If  we  attempt  to  investigate  the  laws  and  forces 
which  govern  animal  growth  and  reproduction,  we  are 
necessarily  brought  face  to  face  with  the  sciences  and 
their  application  to  reproduction,  life  and  growth. 
The  ancient  authors  enumerated  seven  of  them,  and 
Pope  adds  one  more  : 

"Good  sense,  which  only  is  the  gift  of  Heaven, 
And,  though  not  science,  fairly  worth  the  seven." 

(174) 


PRACTICAL   APPLICATION   OF    SCIENCE          175 

So  many  mistakes  have  been  made  in  the  application 
of  science  to  the  breeding  and  improving  of  domestic 
animals,  particularly  horses,  and  so  much  success  has 
been  attained  through  careful  and  timely  attention  to 
the  details  of  feeding  and  surroundings  by  men  un- 
trained in  science,  that  the  fact  is  often  forgotten  that 
their  successes  are  due  to  the  practical  application  of 
science  which  they  have  unwittingly  absorbed.  This 
has  resulted  in  belittling  science — that  is,  ascertained 
truth  or  knowledge  duly  arranged, —  and  in  giving  the 
credit  to  "common  sense.'7 

Such  rapid  advancement  has  been  made  within  the 
last  thirty  years  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  horses, 
that  he  who  would  now  reap  the  largest  reward  must 
not  only  master  the  most  minute  details  of  breeding, 
but  must  also  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  many 
laws  and  forces  that  are  ever  acting,  modifying  and 
limiting  each  other, —  some  of  them  knowable,  some  of 
them  unknown  in  our  present  state  of  research. 

Much  valuable  information  may  be  gained  by  study- 
ing the  effects  of  laws  with  which  we  are  only  partially 
acquainted,  or  of  which  we  are  totally  ignorant.  For 
instance,  we  know  that  exercise  or  motion  under  certain 
conditions  produces  growth  and  development;  under 
others  the  same  exercise  may  produce  weakness  and  de- 
cay. If  we  exceed  the  limit  of  exercise  too  far,  we  may 
not  only  fail  to  secure  development,  but  may  produce 
lasting  injury.  Observing  results  from  certain  methods, 
we  try  to  formulate  in  part,  at  least,  the  laws  with 
which  we  are  only  imperfectly  acquainted.  We  should 
not  discard  or  hold  any  knowledge  lightly  (because  our 


176  THE    HORSE 

knowledge  is  not  complete) ;  neither  should  we  dis- 
card knowledge  which  is  not  absolutely  correct.  Most 
knowledge  is  only  relatively  correct,  but,  if  it  is  accurate 
enough  to  aid  us  in  our  research  and  enlighten  our 
judgment,  it  is  still  valuable.  The  chemist  cannot 
make  his  analyses  absolutely  correct.  Are  they  there- 
fore of  no  value  !  The  steel  rule  may  be  shortened  by 
a  little  cool  air,  and  lengthened  by  the  mild  rays  of 
the  sun;  is  it  therefore  of  no  value  in  measuring 
length  and  breadth  because  it  is  slightly  inaccurate  when 
placed  under  slightly  changed  conditions  ?  While  the 
steel  rule  is  never  again  absolutely  a  foot  long  after 
it  is  made,  except  when  placed  in  the  same  temperature 
as  that  in  which  it  was  made,  yet  it  varies  only  within 
narrow  limits.  So,  although  it  is  seldom  absolutely 
accurate,  it  serves  the  world  well  for  all  uses  to  which 
it  is  ordinarily  put. 

We  speak  of  the  "science"  of  breeding.  This  term 
is  used  loosely,  and  is  too  often  made  to  cover  both 
the  science  and  the  practice  of  breeding.  Science  is 
usually  defined  as  ascertained  facts,  truths  logically 
arranged.  For  instance:  it  is  a  fact  that  like  produces 
like  under  exactly  the  same  conditions.  If  two  parents 
are  similar,  or  of  nearly  identical  blood,  and  their 
environment  and  potency  similar,  their  offspring  will 
be  similar  to  the  parents.  But  it  is  also  a  fact  that 
precisely  the  same  conditions,  in  all  particulars,  are 
never  present  in  the  production  of  any  two  animals, 
and,  therefore,  no  two  animals,  though  from  the  same 
parents,  are  exactly  alike.  Thus  it  appears  that  the 
forces  of  reproduction  and  growth,  food  and  environ- 


VARIATIONS  DUE   TO   LAW  177 

raent,  tend  to  produce  variation.  Slight  variations 
along  one  or  more  lines,  continued  and  accelerated 
from  generation  to  generation,  through  long  periods  of 
time,  may  produce  very  marked  and  permanent  changes. 
If  the  acquired  characteristics,  due  to  variation,  have 
been  present  for  a  long  time,  and  the  chief  conditions 
which  produced  the  variation  are  continued,  then  such 
acquired  qualities  are  transmitted  from  parent  to  off- 
spring, with  a  good  degree  of  certainty;  but  perhaps 
not  so  surely  as  are  the  characteristics  which  were 
acquired  earlier,  when  animals  lived  under  less  artificial 
conditions.  Happily,  the  variations  either  for  better  or 
for  worse,  like  those  in  the  steel  rule,  are  usually 
within  very  narrow  limits  in  a  single  generation  or  even 
in  several  generations.  If  it  were  not  so,  one  species 
would  merge  into  another,  breeds  and  families  be  ex- 
tinguished, and  finally  lost  in  one  indistinguishable 
whole.  Variations  in  stock-breeding,  like  the  errors 
due  to  variations  in  the  steel  rule,  if  multiplied,  often 
may  produce  marked  results. 

The  St.  Louis  bridge,  though  accurately  drafted  and 
accurately  made,  would  not  go  together  when  moved 
to  another  and  warmer  temperature  than  that  in  which 
the  pieces  which  constituted  it  were  shaped.  James  B. 
Eads  did  not  lay  this  trouble  to  chance  or  to  sport. 
He  knew  that  the  lengthening  of  the  girders  of  the 
bridge  was  due  to  an  inexorable  law,  and,  taking 
advantage  of  the  law  that  governs  expansion  and 
contraction  of  iron  and  steel,  he  shortened  the  girders 
of  the  bridge  by  packing  them  in  ice,  thereby  over- 
coming the  difficulty. 


178  THE    HORSE 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  chance,  in  the  sense  in 
which  the  word  is  often  used.  Laws,  or  modes  of 
operation,  reign  supreme  in  the  natural  world,  ever 
the  same  when  subject  to  the  same  conditions.  And 
this  is  not  all.  Every  effect  produced  by  the  operation 
of  a  law  is  registered  in  some  form,  and  somewhere. 
The  vibration  of  the  earth's  particles  produced  by  the 
eruption  of  Mount  Pelee,  in  the  Island  of  Martinique, 
were  recorded  in  England  by  a  most  delicate  and  in- 
genious instrument.  The  particles  of  earth  half  way 
around  the  globe  could  not  vibrate  or  hit  each  other 
without  affecting  all  other  particles  of  which  the  earth 
is  composed.  As  breeders  of  horses,  we  are  first  to 
discover,  if  possible,  Nature's  modes  of  action  and  the 
effects  of  them.  Failing  in  this,  we  attempt  to  decipher 
what  has  been  registered,  in  order  that  something  may 
be  learned  of  the  laws  which  produced  the  effects. 

The  American  bison  (Bos  Americanus)  illustrates 
well  the  power  of  a  species  to  perpetuate  a  very  close 
resemblance  in  the  individuals.  This  is  partly  due  to 
the  similarity  of  the  parents,  partly  to  similarity  of 
food  and  conditions,  and  partly  to  indiscriminate 
breeding.  If  variation  from  any  cause  appeared  in  one 
locality  during  a  single  generation,  it  would  not  be 
likely  to  be  perpetuated.  The  bison  roams  over  a  large 
territory  and  mixes  with  other  herds,  so  that  the 
conditions  which  produced  the  variation  would  not  be 
likely  to  be  present  again,  neither  would  the  parents 
of  the  animal  in  which  the  variation  appeared  be 
likely  to  breed  together  again.  The  variation  would, 
therefore,  almost  certainly  disappear,  or,  at  the  most, 


EFFECTS  OF  RESTRAINT  AND  DOMESTICATION     179 

would  make  only  a  feeble  and  imperceptible  impression 
on  the  common  herd.  Constant  intermingling  of 
animals  which  roam  over  wide  areas  tends  to  produce 
similarity;  while,  if  the  area  be  small,  as  when  animals 
are  reared  in  enclosed  parks,  variation  is  likely  to  be 
perpetuated.  Wild  species,  even  when  kept  pure,  when 
brought  under  domestication  often  show  marked  vari- 
ations from  the  original  type,  due  not  to  admixture 
of  blood,  but  to  changed  food  and  environment.  Even 
when  slightly  restrained,  as  are  the  wild  cattle  of 
Chillingham  Park,  variations  are  quite  common.  Dar- 
win, in  speaking  of  the  variations  in  the  Park  cattle, 
says  that  animals  nearly  in  a  state  of  nature,  and 
exposed  to  nearly  uniform  conditions,  if  not  allowed  to 
roam  freely,  or  to  cross  with  other  herds,  do  not  remain 
as  uniform  as  wild,  unrestrained  animals. 

The  feathered  tribes  usually  make  the  first  marked 
departure  from  the  feral  type  in  the  color  of  the 
feathers.  A  good  illustration  of  this  is  found  in  the 
many  colored  turkeys,  all  originating  from  a  dark- 
bronzed  wild  turkey.  Horses,  cattle  and  pigs,  when 
brought  under  domestication,  usually  vary  first  in  form, 
although  they  may  vary  in  color  as  well.  The  myriad 
departures  from  reproduction  of  exact  likeness  which 
we  may  see  everywhere  and  at  all  times,  do  not  argue 
that  something  has  occurred  without  a  cause,  or  that  a 
miracle  has  been  wrought,  or  that  blind  chance  reigns 
instead  of  law.  To  perpetuate,  then,  the  qualities  and 
characteristics  of  a  species  or  breed  virtually  intact,  all 
the  conditions  must  be  made  similar  to  those  which 
prevailed  in  producing  the  breed.  It  should  not  be 


180  THE    HORSE 

forgotten  that  horse-breeders  usually  aim  at  something 
more  than  simply  preserving  valuable  qualities:  they 
desire  to  produce  variation  for  the  better.  This  is 
difficult  in  ordinary  practice  with  animals  already 
highly  improved.  Many  are  satisfied  if  they  can  repro- 
duce animals  which  are  as  good  as  the  parents.  If  the 
standard  of  excellence  were  not  so  high,  it  would  not 
be  difficult,  with  our  present  knowledge,  to  make  rapid 
advancement.  I  am  speaking  here  of  the  best  specimens 
of  the  various  breeds  of  horses. 

The  differences  are  usually  slight  in  the  offspring 
of  well-bred  animals;  but,  however  slight  they  may  be, 
they  are  worth  noting  and  studying.  Just  here  is  where 
the  beginner  fails.  He  does  not  lay  enough  stress  on 
small  things;  and  the  eye  and  judgment,  not  being 
well  trained,  fail  to  see  clearly  or  to  interpret  correctly 
the  variations  which  tend  toward  improvement  or 
deterioration.  Variations,  when  multiplied  through 
several  generations,  are  easily  discovered;  but  the  cause 
or  causes  which  produce  slight  variation  in  the  im- 
mediate offspring  are  likely  to  elude  our  search  unless 
extended  knowledge  and  wide  experience  ire  possessed. 
Therefore  the  breeding  of  full-blooded  animals  designed 
for  progenitors  of  their  race  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  experts. 

In  order  to  study  the  breeding  of  horses  critically, 
the  subject  is  divided  into  eight  principal  heads  — 
Inheritance,  Food,  Climate,  Habit,  Selection,  Relative 
influence  of  Sire  and  Dam,  the  Governing  of  Sex, 
and  Atavism. 


INHERITANCE  181 


INHERITANCE 

Lo!  what  am  I?    A  patch  of  things, 
Mere  odds  aud  ends  of  lives  flung  by 
From  age-long,  rag-bag  gatherings, 
Pieced  up  by  Fate  full  thriftily: 
Somebody's  worn-out  will  and  wit, 
Somebody's  habits  and  his  hair, 
Discarded  conscience,  faith  once  fair 
Ere  Time,  the  moth,  had  eaten  it; 
My  great-grandfather's  chin  and  nose, 
The  eyes  my  great- grandmother  wore, 
And  hands  from  some  remote  —  who  knows? 
Perchance  prehensile  ancestor; 
Somebody's  style,  somebody's  gait, 
Another  body's  wrist  and  waist, 
With  this  one's  temper,  that  one's  trait, 
One's  tastes,  another's  lack  of  taste; 
Feelings  I  never  chose  to  feel, 
A  voice  in  which  I  had  no  voice, 
Revealing  where  I  would  conceal 
Rude  impulses  without  a  choice; 
Faults  which  this  forefather  or  that 
Unkindly  fostered  to  my  ill, 
With  others  some  one  else  begat 
And  made  the  matter  worser  still. 
They  chose,  these  masters  of  my  fato. 
To  please  themselves,  bequeathing  me 
Base  pleasure  in  the  things  I  hate, 
Liking  for  what  misliketh  me. 
Out  of  the  ashes  of  their  fires, 
Out  of  the  fashion  of  their  bone, 
They  fashioned  me,  my  mighty  sires, 
And  shall  I  call  my  soul  my  own? 


182  THE    HORSE 

This  motley  from  the  Past  flung  down; 

This  work  with  no  artificer; 

This  prince,  this  poet,  and  this  clown, 

Deific,  and  a  driveler; 

This  bequeathed  brain  which  shall  conceive 

What  things  this  borrowed  frame  shall  do; 

This  will  to  serve,  and  will  to  leave 

The  outworn  old,  the  untried  new; 

This  quick  made  up  of  all  the  dead, 

And  this  deep  heart  inheiited, — 

I  call  these  mine,  and  I  will  be 

King,  emperor,  tsar,  and  Deity! 

The  tenement  may  like  me  ill, 

The  garment  ill -befitting  be: 

I  will  inhabit  kingly  still, 

And  wear  my  rags  right  regally. 

These  hands  shall  work  my  will,— not  hers 

Who  fashioned  them  to  other  use; 

These  feet  fare  not  as  he  prefers 

Who  shaped  them,  but  as  I  shall  choose; 

Mine  be  the  words  these  lips  shall  frame; 

And  through  my  great-grandmother's  eyes 

I  front  my  world,  not  hers,  and  claim 

Under  no  dead  soul's  sovereignties. 

Ay,  borrowed  husk,  head,  heart  and  hand, 

Slave  on,  and  serve  me  till  we  die! 

I  am  your  Lord  and  your  Command ! 

But  only  God  knows  —  what  am  I. 

— GRACK    ELLEEY   CHANNINO, 

Atlantic    Monthly,  January.  1902 

Every  skilled  breeder  is  satisfied  that  vigor,  speed, 
beauty  and  all  other  qualities  are,  more  or  less,  hered- 
itary; but,  when  variation  appears,  he  is  slow  to  search 
for  the  causes  which  have  antagonized  or  arrested  the 
law  of  transmission,  and  which,  undisturbed,  should 
produce  close  similarity. 


INHERITANCE  183 

Since  pure -bred  animals  are  now  usually  reared  under 
similar  conditions  (those  of  the  North  being  protected 
from  the  vicissitudes  of  climate  quite  as  much  as  those 
of  the  South),  we  may  study  pure -bred  animals  from 
the  Darwinian  standpoint,  and  expect  that  the  inheri- 
tance of  every  long  and  well-established  characteristic 
will  be  the  rule  and  non-inheritance  the  exception. 
Without  criticizing  any  of  the  breeds,  it  may  be  said 
that  some  of  their  characteristics  have  not  been  well 
established,  because  they  have  been  acquired  in  the  last 
few  generations.  The  subject  of  inheritance  of  farm 
animals  is  difficult  and  complex,  since  all  breeds  of 
domestic  animals  may  be  said  to  be  "made-up  breeds"; 
for,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word,  we  have  no  pure- 
bred animals.  But  this  does  not  concern  us  here  and 
now.  Under  certain  rules  and  regulations,  we  have 
agreed  to  call  certain  varieties  of  horses  thoroughbred, 
pure -bred,  or  full -blood;  but  their  pedigrees  need  not 
be  traced  back  very  far  before  they  end  in  unknown  or 
mixed -blooded  ancestry. 

A  plausible  but  misleading  theory  of  inheritance 
has  been  formulated  as  follows:  The  offspring  receives 
one-half  of  its  inheritance  from  its  parents, —  that  is, 
one -fourth  from  its  :nale  and  one -fourth  from  its  female 
parent;  one -fourth  from  its  four  grandparents,  one- 
eighth  from  its  eight  great -grandparents,  and  so  on. 
Mathematically  expressed,  the  inheritance  would  be 
as  follows: 

GENERATIONS  — 

First        Second          'bird        Fourth        Fifth        Total 


184  THE    HORSE 

It  will  be  seen  that  one -thirty -second  of  the  inheri- 
tance is  unaccounted  for  in  the  above.  This  is  found  in 
the  generations  beyond  the  fifth.  It  is  evident  that  there 
were  thirty -two  ancestors  in  the  fifth  generation,  and 
that  the  animal  in  the  first  generation  gets  but  one- 
thirty- second  of  its  inheritance  from  all  of  them.  The 
animal  under  consideration  has  sixty-two  ancestors  in  the 
fifth  generation.  It  might  easily  transpire  that  some 
one  of  these  was  eminently  prepotent,  and  if  not  very 
remote  would  probably  transmit  far  more  than  its  math- 
ematical proportion  of  its  inheritance.  Let  it  now 
be  supposed  that  in -breeding  has  taken  place,  that  the 
prepotent  blood  of  the  superior  ancestors  has  been 
freely  used  in  the  process,  and  that  such  prepotent  inbred 
blood  comes  down  through  the  sire;  then  the  offspring 
would  inherit  far  more  than  one -fourth  of  its  character- 
istics from  the  sire,  and  less  than  one -fourth  from  the 
dam.  Or,  suppose  a  prepotent  animal  appears  in  the 
second  generation,  the  offspring  might  receive  nearly 
all  of  its  inheritance  from  this  single  animal.  It  is 
evident  to  every  practical  stock-breeder  that  the 
mathematical  theory  does  not  hold  true. 

Inheritance  is  modified  from  generation  to  generation 
by  change  of  food,  climate,  environment  and  use,  or 
habit.  In  rare  cases  it  may  be  so  strong  that  the 
dominant  characteristics  persist  long  in  spite  of  radical 
changes  in  food  and  surroundings. 

Characteristics  which  have  been  long  present  are 
more  likely  to  be  transmitted  than  those  which  have 
been  but  recently  acquired.  Characteristics  which  are 
similar  are  more  likely  to  coalesce  harmoniously  than 


WHAT  MAT  BE   INHERITED  185 

those  which  are  widely  divergent;  therefore,  animals 
of  widely  divergent  form  and  color  should  not  be  bred 
together.  To  secure  strong  inheritance  in  the  off- 
spring, the  sire  and  dam  should  give  visible  evidence 
that  they  have  been  produced  by  breeding  along  par- 
allel lines.  Two  parallel  streams  of  nearly  the  same 
volume  and  rapidity  of  flow  unite  harmoniously;  two 
streams  of  unlike  flow  and  volume,  united  at  a  sharp 
angle,  produce  many  counter  currents  and  unexpected 
results. 

What  may  be  inherited?  Nearly  everything  or  any- 
thing. It  all  depends  on  a  multitude  of  conditions,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  know  certainly,  before  the  parents 
are  united,  what  defects  of  one  or  both  of  the  parents 
will  be  transmitted.  Comparatively  few  blemishes,  as 
ring-bone,  curb,  spavin,  and  the  like,  are  inherited; 
but  what  is  equally  undesirable  is  too  often  transmitted 
—  the  lack  of  power  of  resistance.  When  the  organs 
which  lack  resisting  power  are  put  to  severe  tests,  the 
blemish  which  afflicted  the  parent,  or  something  similar 
to  it,  makes  its  appearance.  Under  favorable  conditions 
and  absence  of  severe  tests,  especially  when  young,  the 
offspring,  though  from  unsound  parents,  may,  and  often 
does  go  through  life  unblemished.  It  is  only  in  rare 
cases  that  tuberculosis  is  inherited;  but  the  lack  of 
power  to  resist  the  specific  organism  which  produces 
the  disease  may  be  inherited.  All  this  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  pains  should  be  taken  to  select  such 
strains  of  animals  for  breeding  purposes  as  are  known 
to  possess  power  to  withstand,  to  a  good  degree,  unusual 
strain  and  adverse  conditions.  Individuals,  and  some- 


186  THE    HORSE 

times  breeds  and  families,  show  endurance  and  resisting 
power  to  an  unusual  degree. 

May  prepotency,  or  unusual  power  to  transmit 
qualities,  be  discovered  in  an  animal  from  outward 
characteristics?  Not  certainly.  But  something  may  be 
prophesied  of  the  probable  prepotency,  or  lack  of  it,  by 
careful  scrutiny  of  the  animal;  since  there  are  certain 
outward  indications  which  almost  invariably  accompany 
this  unusual  power.  The  eyes  are  bright,  wide-open, 
alert,  fairly  wide  apart  and  somewhat  protruding, —  or, 
at  least,  the  reverse  of  sunken.  The  hair  is  fine  and 
soft;  the  skin  neither  thick  nor  leathery,  nor  too  thin 
and  papery,  nor  of  a  flabby  texture,  but  pliable,  mellow 
and  moderately  thin.  The  bones  are  moderate  in  size 
and  have  the  appearance  of  being  of  fine  grain  and 
strong,  as  indicated  by  head,  limbs  and  feet.  Such 
animals  are  usually  symmetrical,  although  they  may  not 
be.  fat.  In  all  of  their  movements  they  are  vigorous, 
alert  and  powerful,  and,  above  all,  courageous;  nerv}', 
but  not  nervous, — all  the  powers  being  under  full 
control,  which  gives  courage  and  confidence  and  the 
ability  to  direct  power  along  efficient  lines.  If  the 
prepotent  animal  is  a  poor  specimen  of  the  breed  (  poor 
animals  are  sometimes  prepotent),  then  it  would  really 
be  better  if  the  prepotent  quality  were  wanting,  for  then 
it  might  chance  that  the  offspring  would  take  after 
remote,  instead  of  immediate  ancestors. 

Characteristics  which  are  much  in  advance  of  the 
general  average  are  likely  not  to  be  perpetuated  in  full 
force  through  even  one  or  two  generations.  "Sports," 
that  is  offspring  which  from  unknown  causes  have  made 


FACTORS    OF  IMPROVEMENT  187 

a  wide  and  abnormal  departure  from  the  types  of  a 
breed,  are  difficult,  and  usually  impossible,  to  perpet- 
uate. Inheritance  is  not  all,  and  is  never  so  persistent 
but  that  it  can  be  greatly  modified  by  food,  climate  and 
habit.  He  who  trusts  to  a  long  pedigree  alone,  is  cer- 
tain to  be  disappointed;  he  who  trusts  to  food,  climate, 
habit  and  use,  to  produce  desired  qualities,  and  prac- 
tices haphazard  breeding,  will  meet  with  greater 
disappointments.  He  is  wise  who  makes  full  use  of  all 
the  factors  which  enter  into  the  maintenance  and 
increase  of  valuable  qualities. 

FOOD 

Food,  next  to  inheritance,  is  the  most  potent  factor 
in  the  improvement  of  the  horse.  "As  a  man  thinketh, 
so  is  he";  as  a  horse  eateth,  so  is  he.  This  statement 
may  be  too  sweeping,  but,  when  taken  in  connection 
with  inheritance,  habit  and  climate,  it  is  true.  All  the 
energy  which  a  horse  uses  is  the  product  of  food  con- 
sumed. Inheritance,  climate  and  special  development  by 
use  may  so  modify  the  structure,  both  mentally  and 
physically,  as  to  make  the  body  a  superior  or  inferior, 
an  economical  or  a  wasteful  living  machine  through 
which  the  energy  is  expended.  One  piece  of  machinery 
may  do  a  certain  amount  of  work  twenty  per  cent 
slower  than  another.  This  difference  may  be  due  to 
putting  the  machine  at  work  for  which  it  was  not  best 
adapted  or  to  faulty  mechanical  construction.  It  may 
be  said,  however,  that  the  machine  has  no  mental 
capacity,  while  the  added  efficiency  of  the  horse  is  fre- 


188  THE    HORSE 

quently  due  to  mental  power  or  brain  force.  Brain  work 
requires  the  energy  of  food  to  sustain  it, —  the  same,  in 
kind,  as  is  required  for  work  done  by  other  muscular 
tissues.  What  really  happens  is  that  high  mental 
capacity  usually  accompanies  high  muscular  efficiency 
and  harmony  of  the  structure  called  upon  to  perform 
the  work.  The  brain  of  the  horse  may  be  likened  to 
the  steam-gauge  on  the  boiler;  it  indicates  somewhat 
accurately  the  amount  of  energy  ready  for  use.  The 
results,  or  work  performed,  will  depend  largely  on  the 
perfection  of  the  working  parts  of  the  engine.  High 
courage  usually  attends  great  endurance,  but  this  is 
not  necessarily  the  case.  Other  things  being  equal,  real 
efficiency  is  more  likely  to  accompany  superior  and  judi- 
cious nourishment  rather  than  inferior  nourishment. 
A  few  days  of  injudicious  feeding  of  the  trotter  or 
racer,  just  before  he  makes  a  great  effort,  may  lose  him 
the  prize. 

Food  plays  a  most  important  part,  not  only  in  growth 
and  development,  but  in  the  efficiency  and  amount  of 
work  as  well.  Some  most  marked  results  are  secured  by 
the  too  liberal  as  well  as  the  too  scanty  feeding  of  many 
young  animals,  such  as  pigs,  calves  and  colts,  during 
the  first  six  months  of  their  lives.  Calves  designed  for 
the  dairy  may  be  greatly  injured  as  to  their  future  per- 
formance by  being  fed  too  liberally  on  concentrated 
food,  or  dwarfed  and  injured  by  being  insufficiently 
nourished.  In  the  same  way,  young  colts,  especially 
after  they  are  weaned,  may  be  handicapped  for  life  by 
injudicious  overfeeding  or  underfeeding. 

Judicious  liberal   feeding  tends  to  increase  size  and 


EFFECTS   OF   FOOD   AND    CLIMATE  189 

to  produce  slight  variations  in  other  directions.  Food 
furnishes  the  material  with  which  to  produce  variations; 
inheritance  and  use  largely  determine  where  and  how 
the  surplus  material  shall  be  used  or  stored.  Liberal 
but  judicious  feeding  and  improved  foods  have  been 
prime  factors  in  the  development  of  the  horse,  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  great  meat -producing  animals.  The 
progeny  of  the  fleet  trotter  may  be  varied  towards  a 
draft -type  in  a  few  generations  by  feeding  for  increased 
weight  and  size  and  by  changing  habit  from  fast  to 
slow,  laborious  work.  Food  and  use  not  infrequently 
overpower  inheritance.  Uncongenial  climate  and  inju- 
dicious feeding  may  prevent  food  from  accomplishing 
its  legitimate  and  desired  end. 

CLIMATE 

Climate  does  not  play  so  important  a  part  in  the 
United  States  in  modifying  animals  and  in  producing 
variations  as  formerly,  when  stables  were  inferior  and 
when  it  was  sometimes  the  practice  to  allow  horses  and 
other  domestic  animals  to  find  shelter  around  the  straw- 
stack.  As  the  forests  were  cleared,  it  was  not  uncom- 
mon to  provide  an  open  shed,  usually  facing  the  south 
or  east,  in  which  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  were  allowed 
to  battle  for  the  place  least  exposed  to  drafts  of  air. 
Even  if  enclosed  stables  were  built,  the  floor  and  sides 
were  so  open  that  the  heat  generated  by  the  animals 
kept  in  them  made  no  perceptible  change  in  the 
temperature.  Many  of  these  stables  were  more  un- 
comfortable for  the  animals  than  open  sheds,  or  the 


190  THE    HORSE 

barnyard,  if  it  chanced  to  be  somewhat  protected  from 
the  winds. 

Under  such  conditions,  climate  played  an  important 
part  in  modifying  the  growth  and  structure  of  both 
horses  and  cattle.  But  little  improvement  could  be 
made  in  animals  where  they  were  subjected  for  nearly 
half  a  year  to  climatic  conditions  as  damp  and  rigorous 
as  those  found  in  the  greater  part  of  the  eastern  and 
middle  states.  The  improvement  in  horses  which  has 
been  made  in  the  last  half -century  could  not  have  taken 
place  had  not  the  rigorous  climatic  conditions  been 
changed  by  the  erection  of  suitable  and  better  stables  in 
which  it  is  possible  to  radically  modify  environment. 
Low  temperatures,  especially  when  accompanied  by 
humidity,  tend  to  increase  the  protective  covering  of 
animals.  They  also  tend  to  arrest  the  development 
of  symmetrical  top  and  bottom  lines.  The  Shorthorn, 
which  stands  humped  up  for  long  periods,  sooner  or 
later  transmits  something  of  its  enforced  curvature  of 
the  spine  to  its  offspring.  Where  there  is  constant  suf- 
fering on  account  of  cold  and  exposure,  the  hair 
thickens,  the  flank  rises,  the  rear  of  the  animal  tends  to 
diminish,  while  the  front  end,  which  contains  what  are 
known  as  the  vital  organs,  tends  to  become  relatively 
larger.  Improve  the  climatic  conditions  so  that  the  food 
energy  will  not  have  to  be  so  largely  expended  to  main- 
tain bodily  heat,  and  there  is  a  steady  tendency  to 
restore  the  harmony  between  the  rear  and  front  ends  of 
the  animal.  If,  in  addition  to  improving  climatic  con- 
ditions, the  food  be  improved,  the  change  for  the  better 
becomes  rapid  and  marked. 


SIZE  MODIFIED  BY   CLIMATE  191 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  inheritance 
is  always  playing  an  important  part,  and  that  even 
favorable  climate  and  food  combined  cannot  radically 
change  conformation  and  characteristics  until  long 
periods  of  time  have  elapsed. 

Severe  climatic  conditions  constantly  tend  to  reduce 
size.  Such  reduction  ceases  only  when  the  body 
structure  has  become  adapted  to  all  the  forces  acting 
upon  it,  or,  in  other  words,  when  an  equilibrium  has 
been  restored  between  energy  produced  and  energy  used. 
Natural  forces  do  not  respect  man's  wishes ;  they  work 
along  the  lines  which  accomplish  their  purposes  in  the 
most  economical  way.  Rigorous  climatic  conditions  tend 
not  only  to  diminish  size  but  to  eliminate  highly  special- 
ized qualities  and  to  produce  hardiness  —  the  prime 
characteristics  which  must  be  perpetuated  if  existence  is 
maintained. 

In  America,  serious  mistakes  have  been  made  by 
placing  some  of  the  imported  breeds  under  climatic  con- 
ditions so  much  more  rigorous  than  those  to  which  they 
were  accustomed  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of 
securing  expected  results.  Since  we  have  become  more 
humane  in  the  winter-housing  and  treatment  of  animals, 
the  breeds  brought  from  a  warmer  climate  than  that  in 
which  they  are  placed  in  the  States  preserve  their 
specialized  qualities  intact  under  skilful  management. 
Still,  there  is  always  danger  in  moving  animals  from 
one  climate  to  another  radically  different,  especially  if  it 
be  from  a  warmer  to  a  colder  one. 


192  THE  HORSE 

HABIT  AND  USE 

When  one  or  several  limbs  or  organs  of  an  animal 
are  called  upon  to  do  extra  work,  Nature  immediately 
tries  to  strengthen  such  members  by  providing  extra 
nourishment.  This  extra  work  must  not  be  carried 
to  the  point  of  exhaustion,  or  the  member  may  become 
weakened  or  diseased. 

The  habit  of  life  and  the  work  performed  play 
important  parts  in  producing  change  and  variation  in 
individuals,  even  in  so  short  a  period  as  a  life -time. 
Take  two  brothers  of  nearly  the  same  age,  similar  in 
looks  and  characteristics,  and  approaching  their  ma- 
jority, and  let  one  lead  an  easy,  sedentary  life,  largely 
within  doors,  while  the  other  exposes  himself  to  the 
sun,  storms  and  cold,  while  employed  in  laborious  toil. 
When  these  brothers  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty,  they 
will  be  so  unlike  as  to  suggest  that  they  might  belong 
to  distinct  races.  If  the  fast -stepping  trotter  spends  his 
life  in  drawing  heavy  loads  at  a  slow  pace,  and  is  kept 
fat  in  order  to  secure  weight,  he  becomes  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  a  draft -horse.  He  may  preserve  his  fine 
head  and  his  smallish  feet,  but  in  weight  and  movement 
he  will  illustrate  what  marked  changes  are  wrought  in  a 
half -score  of  years  of  use.  Or  allow  the  well-bred  dairy 
cow  to  nurse  her  own  calf  for  a  half-year,  so  that  she 
becomes  nearly  dry  at  the  end  of  six  months,  in  subse- 
quent years  she  will  fall  short  of  her  normal  production ; 
whereas,  if  the  calf  had  been  removed  and  she  had  been 
regularly  milked,  the  flow  of  milk  would  not  only  have 
been  more  abundant,  but  it  would  have  continued  much 


SELECTION  193 

longer  and  the  normal  flow  of  milk  have  been  main- 
tained the  following  year.  The  family  horse,  overfed 
and  tinder-used,  soon  becomes  slow  and  logy,  although 
at  first  he  was  spirited  and  active. 

It  can  be  readily  understood  that,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  inherited  characteristics  of  a  breed  or  an 
individual,  the  animals  must  not  only  be  placed  under 
similar  conditions  as  to  food  and  climate,  but  must 
retain  similar  habits  and  do  similar  work  to  that  per- 
formed by  the  ancestors  from  which  they  sprung. 

It  is  difficult  to  discover  certainly  the  character  of  the 
ancestors  by  an  inspection  of  an  animal;  it  is  easy  to 
determine  the  uses  to  which  they  have  been  put  and 
the  abuses  which  they  have  suffered.  Full  use,  without 
abuse,  and  appropriate  work  tend  to  produce  variation 
for  the  better  and  to  preserve  and  increase  the  efficiency 
of  specialized  qualities,  as  well  as  to  make  them  perma- 
nent in  time  and  capable  of  being  transmitted  to  suc- 
ceeding generations. 

SELECTION 

It  is  self-evident  that  variation  is  constantly  taking 
place, —  sometimes  for  the  better,  sometimes  for  the 
worse,  and  that  changes  sometimes  appear  which  do  not 
affect  intrinsic  value.  Most  of  the  causes  which  produce 
variation  are  known,  but  the  causes  may  not  produce 
immediate  noticeable  changes.  It  may  take  several 
generations  before  the  accumulated  effects  become 
marked.  The  careless  breeder  does  not  note  these 
causes  and  their  effects  until  degeneracy  has  gone  so 
far  as  to  make  it  advisable  to  introduce  new  blood, 

M 


194  THE    HORSE 

rather  than  make  the  attempt  to  correct  the  mistake  by 
using  the  animals  which  have  been  varying  for  the 
worse. 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  by  the  subsequent  effects 
the  exact  causes  of  slight  variations  or  the  exact  time 
when  they  are  introduced.  There  is  one  safe  rule  — 
endeavor  to  make  all  of  the  conditions  of  the  animal 
superior  to  those  which  formerly  prevailed;  then  when 
variations  appear  they  are  likely  to  be  for  the  better. 
The  reverse  of  this  is  equally  true.  Inferior  conditions 
produce  variations  for  the  worse. 

Keeping  these  facts  in  mind,  the  breeder  is  ready  to 
begin  his  selection;  provided,  however,  he  has  good 
judgment  and  a  clear-cut  mental  photograph  of  the 
animal  he  seeks  to  produce.  Selecting  an  animal  does 
not  improve  it.  The  breeder  simply  takes  advantage  of 
the  variations  for  the  better  due  to  causes  which 
antedate  his  choice.  By  selection,  he  seeks  to  eliminate 
the  influence  of  those  individuals  which  have  varied  for 
the  worse  or  have  not  risen,  on  the  whole,  above  the 
average.  By  selection,  he  may  progress  faster  than  he 
would  if  he  attempted  to  raise  the  progeny  of  all  the 
herd  to  a  higher  average  level  without  selection. 

A  herd  of  bison,  if  changed  from  bad  conditions  and 
scanty  pasturage  to  improved  conditions  and  abundant 
food,  will,  in  the  course  of  a  few  generations,  vary  for 
the  better;  although  natural  elimination  is  likely  to  be 
more  active  under  bad  than  under  good  conditions. 
It  is,  then,  not  natural  selection,  but  improved  food  and 
environment,  that  have  produced  the  variations  for  the 
better. 


FAILURES   IN  ATTEMPTS    TO   IMPROVE  195 

The  farmer  is  usually  advised  to  purchase  the  best 
male  he  can  find  and  then  practice  rigid  selection,  if  he 
desires  to  improve  his  herd  or  flock.  There  is  either 
too  much  or  too  little  in  this  brief  recipe.  The  stream 
cannot  rise  above  its  fountain-head.  While  the  intro- 
duction of  a  superior  male  into  the  herd  may  improve  it 
for  a  short  time,  eventually  the  average  of  the  herd  will 
represent  the  powers  for  growth,  development  and 
production  which  are  found  in  the  food,  coupled  with 
environment,  use  and  abuse.  More  than  this, — the  herd, 
in  time,  may  actually  fall  below  its  environment  and 
food -supply,  because  of  the  introduction  of  the  improved 
blood;  since  it  may  take  several  generations  before  the 
improved  blood  adapts  itself  to  conditions  less  congenial 
than  were  those  in  which  it  was  produced.  In  earlier 
years,  many  a  farmer  did  introduce  an  improved  male 
into  his  herd,  but  did  not  improve  the  food  and  environ- 
ment, and  after  a  time  found  that  no  permanent  advance 
had  been  made.  Not  seeing  the  cause  of  his  failure,  he 
condemned  the  breed  to  which  the  male  introduced 
belonged,  by  saying  that  it  was  a  pampered,  tender 
breed  for  which  he  had  no  use. 

If  the  farmers  who  desired  to  improve  their  herds  had 
been  told  to  select  a  male  superior  to  the  animals  already 
possessed,  and  to  mingle  his  blood  with  selected  females, 
simultaneously  improving  food,  care  and  environment, 
and  then  to  select  from  the  offspring,  permanent  better- 
ment would  have  been  secured.  After  having  learned 
something  in  the  school  of  experience  of  the  methods 
which  must  be  followed  to  secure  improvement,  the 
breeder  would  naturally  seek  to  make  use  of  a  still 


196  TffJS    HORSE 

better  and  presumably  a  higher -priced  male,  since  he 
had  learned  to  progressively  and  logically  unite  better 
blood,  better  food,  better  quarters,  kindness  and 
selection,  harmoniously,  giving  to  each  factor  its 
appropriate  place  and  value.  Evolution  does  not  go 
forward  by  leaps  and  bounds,  but  by  slow,  almost 
imperceptible  changes  from  generation  to  generation. 
The  breeder  of  domestic  animals  would  do  well  to  follow 
Nature's  modes  of  action. 

So  far,  the  selection  from  the  offspring  has  been  dis- 
cussed, but  of  quite  as  much  importance  is  the  selection 
of  the  parents  through  which,  in  part,  the  betterment  of 
the  offspring  is  to  be  secured.  If  it  is  desired  to  secure 
offspring  which  when  mature  will  reach  sixteen  hands, 
the  result  would  be  reached  far  more  certainly  by 
breeding  a  *female  of  fifteen  and  a  half  hands  to 
a  male  sixteen  and  one -fourth  hands  high,  than  by 
breeding  a  female  of  fourteen  hands  to  a  male  seventeen 
hands  high.  The  progeny  of  animals  radically  different 
is  seldom  satisfactory.  It  is  better  to  take  two  or  three 
generations  in  which  to  attain  the  standard  than  to 
attempt  to  reach  it  at  once  by  breeding  very  small  and 
very  large  animals  together.  At  the  beginning,  judi- 
cious selection  is  of  prime  importance.  The  one  great 
mistake  in  horse-breeding  is  that  of  breeding  large 
stallions  to  small  mares;  that  is,  little  pains  is  taken  to 
select  such  females  as  give  promise  of  uniting  harmo- 
niously in  the  offspring  with  the  blood  of  the  male  to 
which  they  are  bred.  It  all  comes  to  this, — that  moder- 
ate variations  through  generations  produce  qualities 
which  are  likely  to  be  permanent  and  potent. 


RESULTS    OF    CROSSING  197 

RELATIVE     INFLUENCE     OF     SIRE     AND    DAM 

Much  has  been  written  as  to  the  relative  influence  on 
the  offspring  of  sire  and  dam.  When  both  parents  have 
characteristics  in  common,  there  appears  in  the  offspring 
little  to  indicate  that  one  parent  is  more  prepotent  than 
the  other,  or  that  one  transmits  in  a  greater  degree  than 
the  other  special  organs  or  specialized  characteristics. 
But  when  animals  of  the  same  genus,  but  of  extremely 
divergent  characteristics,  are  crossed, —  as  the  horse 
(Equus  Caballus)  and  the  ass  (Equus  Asinus) — most 
interesting  results  are  secured.  When  the  horse  is  used 
as  the  sire,  the  produce  —  the  "hinny" —  takes  on,  it  is 
said,  more  of  the  outward  characteristics  of  the  sire  than 
of  the  dam.  Its  ears  are  smallish,  the  mane  and  tail  fairly 
abundant,  the  foot  rounded  like  that  of  the  horse,  and  it 
neighs.  The  viscera  and  interal  organs  appear  to  be 
largely  inherited  from  the  dam.  She  is  small,  so  is  the 
hinny,  the  outward  structure  adapting  itself  to  the 
internal  organs.  If  the  cross  is  reversed  —  the  jack  bred 
to  the  mare  —  a  mule  is  the  product.  Its  outward  mark- 
ings and  characteristics  are  like  its  sire's  —  long  ears, 
short  and  stubby  hair  on  mane  and  tail,  a  stripe  over 
the  shoulders,  a  narrow  foot  and  the  sonorous  voice  of 
its  sire.  The  outward  characteristics  of  this  hybrid  are 
largely  from  its  paternal  ancestors;  while  the  internal 
organs  are  large,  like  those  of  its  maternal  parent.  This 
being  so,  the  mule  is  larger  than  the  hinny.  In  such 
violent  crosses,  it  is  certain  that  the  sire  transmits  his 
external  organs  to  the  offspring  more  largely  than  does 
the  dam;  and  the  dam  the  internal  organs,  at  least  as  to 


198  THE    HORSE 

size,  more  largely  than  does  the  sire.  When  animals 
which  are  similar  are  united,  it  is  probable  that  the 
same  principle  holds  true  to  a  limited  extent.  Then 
it  would  seem  wise  to  select,  when  possible,  dams  of 
good  size — those  of  large  lungs,  heart  and  viscera 
capacity — even  though  they  may  not  be  as  close -made 
or  of  as  fine  outward  form  as  is  desired  in  the  offspring. 
It  may  be  confidently  expected  that,  if  a  smooth, 
symmetrical,  moderate -sized  stallion  be  united  with 
such  a  mare,  the  progeny  will  be  far  better  as  to  endur- 
ance, beauty  and  potency  than  if  the  characteristics  of 
the  sire  and  dam  were  reversed.  The  practice  of  breed- 
ing large,  even  mammoth  stallions,  to  small,  unsym- 
metrical,  unsound  mares  or  to  "any  old  thing,"  has 
done  more  to  arrest  improvement  which  should  have 
been  secured  from  the  many  good,  home-bred  and 
imported  stallions  than  any  other  one  thing, —  possibly 
than  all  other  adverse  causes  combined. 


THE   GOVERNING   OF   SEX 

The  facts  observed  by  many  reputable  breeders  of 
domestic  animals  lead  to  the  following  conclusion, — 
that  the  most  vigorous,  the  most  prepotent  parent  at  the 
time  of  conception  is  more  likely  to  govern  the  sex  of 
the  offspring  than  the  less  vigorous  parent.  This  is 
only  saying  that  the  stronger  is  superior  to  the  weaker; 
but  this  general  law  can  be  discovered  only  by  being 
put  to  an  extensive  test, —  such  as  when  a  large  number 
of  animals  are  bred  under  similar  conditions.  Some 
extended  experiments  in  France  indicate  that,  when 


VIGOR  AND   PREPOTENCY   GOVERN  199 

sheep  were  observed,  the  first  lambs  were  largely  males. 
As  the  yeaning  season  progressed,  the  number  of  male 
and  of  female  lambs  were  about  equal,  while  at  the  close 
of  the  lambing  season  the  female  lambs  greatly  predomi- 
nated. In  my  own  experience  with  five  hundred  Ameri- 
can Merino  ewes,  I  found  that  about  nine -tenths  of  the 
first  quarter  of  the  total  crop  of  lambs  were  males. 
Then  the  sexes  began  to  even  up,  while,  in  almost  every 
case,  the  last  quarter  of  the  lambs  dropped  were  largely 
females.  Where  large  flocks  of  sheep  are  kept,  it  is 
usual  to  separate  the  rams  from  the  flock  for  three 
or  four  months  preceding  the  rutting  period.  They  are 
fed  liberally  with  such  foods  as  experience  has  shown 
will  produce  unusual  vigor.  At  the  same  time  the  ewes 
are  kept  under  normal  conditions  or  those  somewhat  less 
productive  of  vigor,  since  the  flock  is  usually  large  and 
the  pasturage  and  food  somewhat  limited.  It  is  evident 
that  under  these  circumstances  the  males,  when  first 
turned  into  the  flock,  will  be  more  vigorous  than  the 
females.  As  the  season  advances,  there  being  but  few 
of  the  males,  they  become  depleted  in  vigor  so  far  as  to 
fall  below  the  vigor  of  the  ewes.  Many  instances  of  like 
experience  with  flocks  of  sheep  could  be  cited. 

My  friend  who  owns  an  island  off  the  coast  of  South 
Carolina  which  is  stocked  with  cattle  and  swine  that 
roam  at  will,  with  no  care  from  the  owners,  states  that 
they  show  marked  sex -variations  in  different  seasons. 
After  a  hard  winter  and  scarcity  of  food,  male  pigs 
predominated.  As  they  were  hunted  for  food  during 
encampment  on  the  island,  it  was  seldom  that  a  female 
pig  could  be  secured.  The  males,  not  being  depleted  by 


200  THE  HOUSE 

nourishing  young  the  year  before,  passed  through 
the  winter  with  powers  less  impaired  than  the  female. 
This  is  the  explanation  that  he  gave  me  for  the  facts 
observed.  When  food  became  abundant  in  other  years 
and  conditions  were  improved,  the  sex  of  those  pigs 
which  were  slaughtered  was  about  evenly  divided.  Were 
it  appropriate,  many  facts  could  be  cited  to  substantiate 
this  theory  in  the  human  family. 

However,  before  leaving  this  subject,  it  should  be 
said  that  either  the  male  or  the  female  may  be  propotent 
in  color  alone  or  some  other  characteristic  and  not 
prepotent  in  sex  characteristics,  or  either  one  may  be 
prepotent  in  sex  characteristics  alone.  We  are  acquainted 
with  many  animals  which  persist  in  bearing  offspring  of 
one  sex  though  bred  to  different  males,  and  with  some 
that  persist  in  producing  one  sex  as  long  as  mated  with 
the  same  male,  but  when  another  male  is  used  the  sex 
of  the  offspring  is  changed. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  which  some- 
times have  appeared  to  indicate  a  law;  but  as  yet  no 
law  has  been  discovered  for  governing  the  sex  of  off- 
spring which  holds  uniformly  true  or  which  is  workable. 
We  may  sometimes  change  conditions  or  change  the 
mating  of  the  animals  and  arrest  the  prepotent  factor 
of  sex  or  any  other  potent  factor,  and  at  other  times  no 
change  of  food  or  mating  accomplishes  the  desired  result. 
We  conclude  then  that  the  stronger  characteristic, 
whatever  it  may  be,  is  superior  to  the  weaker.  The 
difficulty  consists  in  determining  them.  If  any  one  had 
discovered  a  method  of  controlling  sex,  he  would  have 
taken  out  letters  patent  on  it  long  ere  this. 


COPULATION,    RELATIVE  AGE  201 

ATAVISM 

Atavism  is  the  recurrence,  or  tendency  to  recur,  to 
an  ancestral  type,  peculiarity,  or  disease  after  its  disap- 
pearance for  one  or  more  generations.  It  is  intermittent 
heredity;  reversion;  "dating  back." 

The  offspring  may  be  affected  by  physical  conditions 
of  parents  at  the  time  of  copulation,  and  also  by  the 
condition  of  the  parent  during  pregnancy.  It  is  believed 
that  the  first  fruitful  connection  may  sometimes  have  a 
marked  influence  on  subsequent  offspring.  It  is  con- 
tended by  a  few  that,  if  a  full-blooded  animal  has  been 
fruitful  by  reason  of  connection  with  a  mongrel,  there- 
after the  blood  of  the  dam  is  vitiated  and  she  becomes 
incapable  of  producing  full -blood  offspring  when 
united  with  a  full -blood  male  of  her  own  breed. 

The  relative  age  and  vigor  of  parents  may  have  a 
marked  influence  on  the  offspring.  Animals  which  are 
overfat  tend  to  lose  somewhat  the  power  of  transmit- 
ting their  highly  specialized  qualities  and  full  vigor.  In 
fact,  animals  overfat  may  be  said  to  be  on  the  verge  of 
disease.  Exercise,  or  the  lack  of  it,  in  the  parents  may 
be  a  potent  factor  for  good  or  evil,  in  reproduction. 

In  highly  organized  animals,  mental  impressions  at 
time  of  copulation,  and  for  some  time  afterwards,  may 
have  a  marked  influence  on  the  offspring.  In  most 
cases,  however,  mental  impressions  play  little  or  no  part 
in  the  breeding  of  domestic  animals. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

PLAN  OF  BREEDING 

A  GENERAL  plan  should  be  carefully  thought  out 
before  the  farmer  makes  the  attempt  to  breed  few  or 
many  horses.  As  the  work  of  breeding  progresses, 
many  questions  of  detail  will  arise  which  can  be  most 
successfully  solved  as  they  occur.  One  detail  has  a 
bearing  on  others,  changes  are  constantly  taking  place 
in  surroundings — food  available,  supply  of  and  demand 
for  horses,  and  fashion.  After  the  general  plan  is  out- 
lined, he  is  most  likely  to  succeed  who  adjusts  the 
details  most  skilfully  to  the  general  plan,  to  the 
environment  and  to  the  proposed  results. 

First,  the  man  should  take  account  of  his  likes  and 
dislikes.  He  may  admire  the  light,  active  horse.  If 
his  farm  is  rolling,  the  soil  easily  tilled,  he  may  gratify 
his  tastes;  but  he  would  almost  certainly  fail  if  he 
attempted  to  breed  draft-horses.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  man  who  occupies  a  stiff- clay  wheat  farm,  and  who 
from  this  fact  may  have  learned  to  admire  a  powerful, 
large  horse,  would  be  foolish  if  he  attempted  to  breed 
roadsters.  He  succeeds  best  who  unites  with  his  knowl- 
edge of  horse-breeding  a  genuine  love  for  the  breed 
which  he  cultivates.  Before  beginning,  call  a  meeting 
of  the  stockholders  of  the  enterprise  —  the  wife  and 
children;  their  wishes  should  be  respected,  and  they 

(202) 


HONESTY   THE   BEST  POLICY  203 

may  be  able  to  give  wise  counsel.    "In  the  multitude 
of  counselors  there  is  safety." 

The  market  should  also  be  studied.  Draft  animals 
sell  well  at  the  end  of  the  halter  tail.  Roadsters  and 
coachers  should  receive  some  training,  if  mature,  before 
they  are  marketed,  if  full  values  are  received  for  them. 
The  amount  of  money  and  time  that  may  be  available 
for  doing  this  training  should  be  considered  before  it 
is  undertaken.  The  beginner  should  start  in  a  small 
way,  carefully. 

"Smaller  boats  should  keep  near  shore, 
Larger  ones  may  venture  more." 

To  get  the  most  out  of  breeding  horses,  one  should 
know  something  of  how  to  buy,  sell  and  trade, —  in 
other  words,  acquire  some  knowledge  of  the  business. 
Some  men  are  born  with  horse  instinct,  and  these 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  horses  quickly.  Some  tuition 
will  have  to  be  paid  for  this  knowledge,  if  it  is  not 
possessed  at  the  start.  In  the  long  run,  honesty  will  be 
very  much  the  best  policy.  This  is  especially  the  case  in 
dealing  in  horses.  Once  a  reputation  is  made  for  strict 
honesty,  and  the  market  for  your  horses  is  established. 
A  sharp  distinction  should  be  made  between  differences 
in  judgment  and  misstatements  of  facts.  It  is  surpris- 
ing how  quickly  the  honest  horseman  is  known  and 
appreciated  by  purchasers  in  the  horse  market,  although 
the  judgment  of  the  buyer  as  to  value  may  not  be  in 
accord  with  that  of  the  seller.  Every  honest  transaction 
increases  the  selling  price  of  every  unsold  horse  in  the 
stable,  while  every  dishonest  one  not  only  depresses 


204  THE    HORSE 

the  price  of  the  whole  stock,  but  diminishes  the  num- 
ber of  customers.  Having  decided  on  the  breed, —  I 
cannot  decide  for  you, —  hold  honestly  to  it.  If  it  is 
not  the  best  one,  make  it  the  best,  if  possible.  Do 
not  attempt  to  breed  a  draft -trotting -coach -horse.  You 
will  be  fortunate  if  you  do  not  make  enough  mistakes, 
when  breeding  with  a  definite  object  in  view,  to  furnish 
all  of  this  class  of  horses  which  the  market  will  take. 
The  most  difficult  task  of  all  will  be  to  get  together 
a  half-dozen  or  a  dozen  good  brood-mares, —  but  with- 
out them  failure  is  predetermined.  It  is  assumed  that 
my  reader  lacks  the  means  to  purchase  these  animals 
outright.  Even  if  he  had,  he  would  then,  with  the 
horses  already  possessed,  have  too  many  work -animals; 
for  the  mares  will  be  able  to  do  the  summer's  work, 
although  they  may  be  put  to  raising  colts  in  the 
winter.  One  of  two  methods  may  be  used  to  dispose 
of  the  geldings,  unsuitable  mares,  the  old  and  unsound 
of  both  sexes.  From  time  to  time,  quietly  trade  or 
sell  one  of  the  undesirable  animals.  Give  "boot"  if 
necessary — money  or  a  cow  or  a  wagon, —  but  trade 
if  a  good  and  tried  brood-mare  is  offered,  or  trade 
for  other  live  stock  —  cows  and  sheep.  Then  trade 
these  for  the  brood-mare,  or  sell  outright  and  take  a 
good  promise  to  pay.  Put  the  notes  in  the  bank  as  col- 
lateral security  and  borrow  enough  money  to  pay  for 
the  brood -rnares.  Such  transactions  will  result  in 
developing  the  judgment  and  in  increasing  confidence 
in  one's  ability  to  do  business.  If  the  trader  is  a 
young  man,  he  will  soon  acquire  good  "horse -sense." 
There  will  be  some  tuition  bills  to  pay,  but  we  seldom 


BROOD-MARES    IN    THE    CITY 


205 


secure    knowledge    of   any   kind    without    paying    the 
score. 

Many   good    brood-mares    have    been    sent   to   the 
cities.    They  have   been    there  on  the   hard  pavement 


FIG.  48.  A  desirable  coach  brood-mare  of  good  action  and  high  spirits.    Not  ideal 
in  form,  but  when  tested  for  breeding  purposes  has  proved  to  be  superior. 

quite  long  enough.  Their  feet  would  be  benefited  by 
the  soft  earth  of  the  field.  Trade  a  gelding  for  the 
mare  and  gd  "boot."  She  may  not  be  quite  what  you 
want,  because  she  was  not  set  at  her  life-work  when 


206  THE    HORSE 

young.  Nevertheless,  she  may  be  good.  There  aro 
many  good  brood-mares  on  the  farms  which  have 
never  been  used  for  breeding  purposes.  There  are  a 
multitud  of  ways  to  change  the  heterogenous  work- 
stock  of  the  farm  for  at  least  fairly  good,  sometimes 
superior  brood  animals.  One  of  the  latter  may  be 
worth  twenty -five  to  thirty  cents  per  pound,  or  six 
times  the  price  of  beef  on  foot.  My  friend  owns  a 
mare  which  has  performed  regular  and  full  work  in 
the  summer,  and  produced  colts  which,  in  the  aggegate, 
have  been  sold  when  fairly  mature  for  $1,700,  or 
nearly  $200  each.  A  plain  grain  farmer  and  a  plain 
appearing  mare;  the  latter  suited  to  a  distinct  purpose, 
the  former  with  acumen  sufficient  to  make  gox>d  use 
of  his  opportunity.  (Figs.  48  and  49). 
.  .  Description  of  a  Brood-mare.— It  is  impossible  to 
secure  a  clear  mental  photograph  of  a  good  or  superior 
brood-mare  by  illustrations  or  printed  descriptions. 
The  living  animal  must  be  studied  long,  carefully, 
patiently,  if  one  is  to  become  an  expert  judge.  How- 
ever, some  help  may  be  secured  by  means  of  pictures 
and  descriptions.  The  brood-mare  should  ba  of  good 
size,  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  variety  or 
breed  to  which  she  belongs  and  the  size  of  the  progeny 
desired.  Her  body  conformation  should  be  rather 
open,  or  the  reverse  of  pony-build.  She  may  be,  and 
often  is,  a  shade  too  long  in  body  and  slightly  too 
coarse.  But  these  defects,  if  they  are  defects,  may  be 
corrected  in  the  offspring  through  the  sire.  The  eyes 
should  be  prominent,  bright  and  well-set;  the  head 
fine,  for  the  breed;  neck  inclined  to  be,  if  anything, 


THE   COLT  GIVES  PROMISE 


207 


too  thin,  provided  it  be  well  set  on  the  shoulders. 
Short,  thick -necked  brood -mares  are  too  often  dis- 
appointing. The  shoulders  should  be  rather  thin, 
moderately  oblique,  and  withers  high  rather  than  low. 


FIG.  49.    A  three-year-old  fresh  from  pasture 

The  back  (top  line)  may  be  a  trifle  long  if  the  bottom 
line  is  correspondingly  long,  though  a  short  top  line 
coupled  with  a  long  bottom  line  is  best.  The  hind- 
quarters should  be  broad  and  deep,  neither  steep  nor 
flat,  with  hips  thrown  well  forward.  The  hips  and  short 
ribs  should  not  approach  each  other  too  closely.  A 


208  THE    HORSE 

brood-mare  that  is  a  little  open -ribbed  is  preferable  to 
one  that  is  too  close -ribbed.  Such  a  structure  usually 
accompanies  a  symmetrically  set  tail,  a  broad  pelvis 
and  well -developed  mammary  glands.  Symmetrical, 
clean,  well-knit  legs, —  a  little  short  rather  than  a 
little  too  long,  according  to  breed, —  placed  rather  well 
under  the  body,  instead  of  on  the  "corners"  of  the 
horse,  should,  if  provided  with  good  feet  and  nerve 
power,  carry  the  dam  safely  through  ten  to  fifteen 
years  of  strenuous  life,  while  imparting  to  her  off- 
spring her  own  characteristics. 

Some  horses  have  feet  too  large,  some  too  small.  Some 
have  feet  that  are  too  low,  flat  and  open  at  the  heel. 
Others  have  too  high  feet  with  too  narrow  heels. 
If  a  happy  medium  can  be  secured,  and  the  feet  are 
dark  colored,  tough  and  close  of  texture,  they  will  not 
only  be  good,  but  will  indicate  that  the  balance  of  the 
body  structure  is  also  tough  and  fine-grained.  The 
color,  as  has  already  been  said,  should,  when  possible, 
be  of  some  shade  of  bay  or  brown,  while  the  hair 
should  be  thick,  short  and  soft. 

Having  good  mares,  it  is  cornparativ3ly  easy  to 
select  the  male  to  which  they  are  to  be  bred.  The  male 
should  be  masculine  in  appearance,  fine,  and  larger 
and  smoother  than  the  female;  for  this  is  natural  and 
logical  if  the  reasoning  which  has  already  been  given 
in  Chapter  XIII  is  correct.  In  any  case,  whether  the 
purpose  is  to  enlarge  the  progeny  as  compared  with 
its  smallest  parent  or  to  reduce  size  as  compared  with 
the  largest  ancestor,  the  change  should  be  gradual. 
Full  success  may  not  be  secured  from  breeding  large 


AVOID   RADICAL    GROSSES 


209 


males  to  small  females,  or  small  males  to  large  females, 
nor  when  one  or  both  of  the  parents  are  enfeebled  by 
old  age  or  by  abuse  and  over- work  or  over-feeding. 
Animals  which  are  markedly  immature  should  not  be 


FIG.  50.    The  draft-colt'S  first  lesson 

Waist  too  small,  rump  a  little  too  steep.     When  in  good  flesh  and 
mature,  these  defects  will  largely  disappear 

used  for  breeding  purposes  unless  the  object  is 
primarily  to  direct  the  energies  into  certain  specific 
channels  other  than  reproduction,  as  in  the  case  of 
dairy  cows,  or  as  may  be  the  case  when  it  is  the 
purpose  to  produce  a  superior,  heavy -milking,  brood- 
animal.  (See  "When  and  How  to  Breed.") 


210  THE    HORSE 

FALL  VERSUS   SPRING  COLTS 

In  the  fruit  and  dairy  districts  the  pressing  work 
ceases  in  September;  in  the  grain -raising  sections  it 
is  October  before  the  farm -horse  gets  relief.  If  fall 
or  winter  colts  are  to  be  raised,  it  is  evident  that  the 
foals  should  not  appear  until  October  or  November  in 
the  former  case,  and  November  and  December  in  the 
latter,  unless  there  are  enough  animals  on  the  farm  to 
permit  of  diminishing  the  work  of  those  which  are  in 
foal.  However,  circumstances  will  to  a  great  extent 
govern  this  and  other  details.  Wherever  the  fall  work 
will  permit,  the  time  of  breeding  might  well  be 
advanced  two  or  three  months;  provided,  however,  the 
foal  does  not  appear  when  flies  are  cruelly  annoying. 

The  female  is  not  as  likely  to  be  amorous  in  the 
fall  and  winter,  as  in  the  spring.  Usually,  she  is 
rather  thin  in  flesh  after  the  summer's  work.  If  so, 
the  task  of  securing  the  desired  results  will  be  the 
easier.  By  increasing  the  food,  especially  the  grain 
ration,  by  giving  regular  but  somewhat  moderate  exer- 
cise, and  by  double  or  single  blanketing,  conditions 
will  be  produced  similar  to  those  which  prevail  in  the 
spring.  Meantime  the  bowels  should  be  kept  free  from 
constipation  by  feeding  moderate  amounts  of  succulent 
foods. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  fall  colts  do  not  shed  their 
hair  as  freely  and  as  perfectly  as  do  spring  colts.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  this  is  so. 

Colts  usually  shed  their  incisor  teeth  about  three 
months  in  advance  of  their  third,  fourth  and  fifth 


INDUCING  AMOROUSNESS  211 

birthdays.  Fall  colts  shed  their  teeth  when  grass  is 
yet  abundant;  spring  colts  when  on  dry,  winter  food. 
Dentition  proceeds  more  satisfactorily  when  the  ani- 
mals are  at  grass  than  when  fed  on  dry  food. 

PLAN  FOR  REARING  WINTER  COLTS 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  a  farm  requires  the  labor 
of  four  horses.  It  may  also  be  assumed  that  the  usual 
number  kept  is  seldom  sufficient  for  performing  the 
work  promptly  and  satisfactorily  in  the  spring.  Such 
a  farm  should  be  equipped  with  at  least  five  work- 
animals,  four  good  brood-mares  and  one  animal  suit- 
able for  the  carriage  and  family  use  and  for  emergen- 
cies: it  may  take  two  or  three  years  to  secure  them. 
If  four  brood-mares  are  regularly  bred,  two  or  three 
colts  may  be  raised  each  year,  on  an  average. 

Until  the  colts  are  large  enough  to  do  light  work, 
the  carriage -horse  may  be  used  for  farm  work  in 
emergencies.  When  the  colts  reach  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  and  a  half  years  of  age,  they  should  be 
taught  to  do  light  work. 

One  weakness  of  the  horse-breeder  is  his  apparent 
inability  to  sell  his  colts  and  horses  as  rapidly  as  he 
should.  A  good  way  to  advertise  the  fact  that  you 
have  good,  young  horses  for  sale,  is  to  drive  them 
into  town  once  or  twice  each  week  after  the  five  o'clock 
supper.  Get  on  a  clean  shirt,  get  the  mail,  and  earn 
a  dollar,  more  or  less,  by  driving  the  colts;  thereby 
enhancing  their  value  by  making  them  familiar  with 
city  sights  and  sounds.  You  dare  not  tie  them  in  town, 


212  THE    HORSE 

and  therefore  will  have  no  opportunity  to  get  a  glass 
of  beer.  If  the  farmer  is  breeding  roadsters,  not  in- 
frequently he  will  place  such  exorbitant  prices  on  his 
colts  as  to  effectually  prevent  the  sale  of  them.  He 
may  ask  three  or  four  hundred  dollars  for  a  single 
untrained  colt,  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  may  have 
reared  a  calf  to  the  same  age  and  offer  it  for  $25; 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  calf  has  probably 
cost  him  one -half  as  much  to  produce  as  the  colt. 
Ability  to  sell  is  quite  as  necessary  as  ability  to  pro- 
duce. Lack  of  either  handicaps  the  farmer,  especially 
the  breeder  of  live  stock. 

The  intelligence  of  the  farmer  is  augmented  if  he 
raises  such  products  as  require  skill  and  judgment  in 
their  production  and  sale.  The  fruit-growers  are 
usually  intelligent  and  broad  men,  because  it  requires 
high  intelligence  to  produce  good  fruits  and  to  sell 
them  to  the  best  advantage. 

If  the  number  of  colts  which  may  be  produced  from 
four  mares  and  their  female  progeny  in  ten  years  is 
computed,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  unless  many 
sales  are  made  this  kind  of  horse-breeding  will  ruin 
the  breeder.  Just  here  is  where  many  men  who  have 
added  horse-breeding  to  their  other  activities  have 
failed.  A  man  will  milk  cows  semi -daily  for  eight 
months  of  the  year  and  secure  from  them  from  five  to 
ten  per  cent  profit;  but  when  he  offers  a  colt  or  a  young 
horse  for  sale  he  will  put  a  price  on  it  which  includes 
cost  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent  profit.  Failing 
to  sell,  the  animal  continues  to  eat  until  it  "eats  up 
the  owner." 


OBJECTS    OF  BREEDING    FOUNG  213 

•  If  the  colts  or  undesirable  brood -mares  become  too 
numerous  and  the  pastures  too  short,  trade  in  August 
for  a  pair  of  bob-sleds,  and  get  "boot."  They  will,  at 
least,  not  "eat  their  heads  off."  The  next  winter  some 
one  will  want  the  sleds.  Or  trade  for  hogs,  cattle  or 
sheep.  These  may  be  killed  and  disposed  of,  and  the 
apparently  endless  chain  is  broken.  The  thrift  of  the 
New  Englander  is  due,  it  is  said,  to  his  skill  in 
swapping  jack-knives.  It  is  even  recorded  that  a 
family  of  boys  traded  watches  among  themselves  one 
entire  winter  and  each  made  not  less  than  five  dollars. 
There  is  always  a  person  somewhere  who  wants  the 
very  thing  you  have, —  find  him. 

The  two-year-old  fillies  which  have  the  promise  of 
developing  into  good  brood-mares  should  be  bred  at 
about  two  years  of  age,  and  again  at  three  years  old. 
They  may  produce  two  foals  each  in  this  time,  and  a 
fair  test  will  have  been  made  of  their  breeding  qualities. 
It  is  probable  that  their  offspring  will  not  be  quite  so 
good  as  it  would  have  been  had  they  been  older;  but 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  they  be  set  at  their 
life-work  when  young  if  they  are  to  be  developed  into 
superior  brood-mares.  The  same  principle  should  be 
observed  with  brood-mares  as  in  the  production  of 
dairy -cows.  After  the  second  foal  is  weaned  they  may 
be  trained  for  work. 

If  they  prove  unsatisfactory  as  mothers,  by  proper 
feeding  they  may  be  made  to  take  the  general  form  of 
mares  which  have  not  produced,  when  they  may  be 
sold  or  exchanged,  being  yet  in  the  fifth  year  and 
quite  young  enough  for  city  use. 


214  THE   HORSE 

All  this  plan  may  appear  to  the  young  reader  easy 
of  execution,  but  it  is  not, —  it  is  difficult.  Difficult 
undertakings,  if  successful,  produce  liberal  rewards; 
easy  ones,  meager  compensation.  Failures  will  be  met 
with,  you  may  get  cheated  in  trading  horses;  if  so, 
that  will  stimulate  your  intelligence  and  after  a  time 
the  increased  knowledge,  the  valuable  business  expe- 
rience and  training,  and  the  profits  will  be  ample 
reward.  Good  horses  are  scarce  and  high  priced. 
Milk  is  cheap.  Then  why  not  reduce  the  cow  dairy 
and  add  a  winter  horse  dairy  and  let  the  colts  do  the 
milking? 

FEEDING  THE  BROOD -MARE  AND  FOAL 

When  the  mare  is  at  severe  work  during  the  sum- 
mer months,  the  ration  should  be  wide, —  one  to  seven 
or  one  to  eight.1  As  the  work  lightens  and  time  of 
parturition  approaches,  the  ration  may  be  narrowed; 
about  one  to  six  is  appropriate.  The  bowels  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  constipated,  neither  should 
they  be  lax.  The  system  should  be  kept  free  from 
fever  and  the  muscles  fully  supplied  with  water  by 
feeding  some  succulent  foods  and  those  which  tend  to 
cool  the  system  and  soften  the  striated  muscles.  For 
one  or  two  months  previous  to  parturition,  the  mare 

1 A  ration  is  said  to  be  wide  when  the  heat  and  energy  constitu- 
ents of  the  food  exceed  the  muscle-sustaining  constituents  more  than 
seven  times;  when  less  than  five  times,  it  may  be  termed  a  narrow 
ration.  These  figures  are  not  arbitrary.  Nutritive  ratio  means  the 
proportion  which  the  proteids,  muscle-sustainers,  bear  to  the  heat- 
and  energy-producers.  (See  Appendix  III.) 


RATIONS  FOR  BROOD-MARES  215 

should  never  be  allowed  to  work  on  soft  plowed 
ground  or  on  muddy  roads  or  be  driven  at  a  rapid 
pace,  nor  should  she  be  used  for  heavy  draft  work. 
Unless  she  be  free  in  the  pasture,  she  will  be  bene- 
fited by  regular,  light  work. 

Brood-mares,  when  nursing  their  foals,  should  be 
fed  much  as  dairy  cows  are, —  that  is,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk.  Timothy  hay  and  corn  are  not  good 
and  economical  milk -producing  foods  when  fed  alone. 
(See  Appendix  III.)  The  ration  of  brood-mares  and 
colts  should  be  narrow,  about  one  to  five  if  the 
stables  are  comfortable.  If  the  temperature  in  the 
stable  remains  down  to  zero  or  below  for  considerable 
periods  of  time,  then  the  ration  should  be  widened  to 
one  to  seven,  or  even  one  to  eight,  by  adding  con- 
centrated carbonaceous  foods.  Rather  wide  rations 
should  be  fed  in  the  stables  which  are  over -venti- 
lated— draughty.  It  is  wise  to  feed  some  succulent 
food  (carrots  are  best),  even  if  the  mare  is  not  giving 
milk.  Matured  apples,  potatoes  and  good  corn  silage 
may  be  fed  in  limited  quantities.  Bright  mixed  clover 
and  timothy  hay,  if  fed  with  judgment,  should  pro- 
vide all  the  needed  roughage.  Better  feed  bright 
straw  with  nitrogenous  grain  rations  to  balance  it 
than  to  feed  overripe  or  musty  and  dirty  hay. 

For  a  mare  of  1,100  pounds,  nursing  a  foal,  the 
following  would  constitute  a  good  and  sufficient  daily 
ration  as  long  as  the  foal  subsists  entirely  on  its 
mother's  milk:  (When  it  has  passed  that  period,  it 
should  be  tied  during  feeding  time  and  fed  in  a  sep- 
arate manger.) 


216  THE    HOUSE 

Mixed  hay 15  pounds. 

Wheat  bran   (or  its  equivalent) 5  pounds. 

Oats 5  pounds. 

Carrots 8  pounds. 

This  ration  should  be  increased  or  diminished  as 
the  condition  of  dam  and  foal  seems  to  demand.  If 
the  hay  has  a  large  proportion  of  bright  clover,  it  is 
all  the  better,  and,  in  this  case,  cracked  corn  may 
well  be  substituted  for  part  of  the  oats.  Roots  are 
desirable  in  this  ration,  both  because  they  tend  to 
stimulate  the  flow  of  milk  and  because  they  are  con- 
ducive to  good  health  in  dam  and  foal. 

The  colt,  up  to  the  time  it  is  called  on  to  perform 
service,  should  receive  a  narrow  ration, —  one  of  about 
one  to  five  or  one  to  five  and  a  half. 

There  are  two  critical  periods  in  the  life  of  the 
foal,  —  the  transition  period  when  its  food  is  being- 
changed  from  the  mother's  milk  to  a  partial  or  entire 
ration  of  solid  food,  and  the  time  when  it  changes  its 
milk-teeth  for  permanent  ones. 

If  the  dam  becomes  pregnant  on  the  ninth  day 
after  she  has  brought  forth  young,  or  soon  after,  her 
milk  will  decrease,  as  time  goes  on,  more  rapidly  than 
it  would  if  she  had  not  become  so.  Therefore,  if  the 
dam  becomes  pregnant,  the  foal  should  have  its  milk 
supply  of  food  supplemented  by  an  extra  portion  of 
palatable,  easily  digested,  green  and  dry  food.  The 
foal  should  be  weaned  when  it  is  three  to  four  months 
old,  if  the  dam  is  pregnant;  if  she  is  not,  it  may 
nurse  somewhat  longer.  If,  for  any  reason,  the  colt 
begins  life  in  the  spring,  then  the  time  for  weaning 


CARE    OF   FOAL   AND   DAM    AT    WORK  217 

it  will  be  when  the  flies  are  most  annoying,  the  sun 
fiercest,  pastures  scant,  the  grasses  dry  and  more  or 
less  innutritions.  It  is  cruel  to  separate  the  young 
things  from  their  dams  and  turn  them  out  at  this  time 
of  the  year  to  fight  for  their  lives.  Far  better,  place  them 
in  darkened  box -stalls  until  the  flies  have  departed. 

Water  should  be  offered  in  the  winter  twice  and  in 
summer  thrice  daily.  The  drinking  water  in  the  win- 
ter will  be  most  acceptable  if  raised  to  a  temperature 
of  98  degrees  Fahr.,  though  this  is  not  imperative. 

A  roomy  box -stall  should  be  provided  for  the  mare 
and  foal;  one  ten  by  fifteen  feet  in  the  clear  will 
suffice,  except  for  large  draft -mares.  When  the  foal 
is  a  few  days  old,  its  dam  may  be  led  out  of  the  stall 
daily.  At  first  she  should  not  be  separated  from  her 
offspring  but  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time;  the  time  of 
each  successive  separation  may  be  increased  until  it 
will  be  safe  to  use  the  mare  for  two  or  three  hours 
at  a  time.  The  blood  of  the  mare  should  not  be  over- 
heated, nor  should  the  foal  be  allowed  to  nurse  when 
the  mare  is  over -warm.  A  good  plan  is  to  allow  the 
mare  a  liberal  breathing  spell  at  the  far  end  of  the 
field,  with  her  head  away  from  the  barn,  a  half -hour 
or  so  before  she  comes  to  the  stable.  If  this  does  not 
result  in  her  cooling  off,  then  it  will  be  better  to 
relieve  the  udder  of  some  of  the  milk  before  returning 
her  to  the  stable  and  her  foal. 

The  foal  should  not  be  allowed  to  follow  its  dam 
when  she  is  at  work.  The  mare  and  foal  would  better 
be  turned  into  a  field  or  paddock  during  the  pleasant 
weather  a  few  hours  each  day  in  the  winter,  and  at 


218  THE    HORSE 

night  in  the  summer  after  having  eaten  their  usual 
grain  ration  in  the  stable.  Mr.  F.  S.  Peer,  in  his 
interesting  book  on  "Soiling,  Ensilage  and  Stable  Con- 
struction," recommends  soiling  brood-mares  and  foals 
during  fly  time  and  turning  both  out  at  night. 
He  recommends  feeding  oats  and  peas,  also  alfalfa. 

In  summer,  darken  the  stables  and  exclude  the 
flies  as  far  as  possible.  Preserve  the  rotund  appear- 
ance and  the  "colt  flesh"  of  the  foal  until  it  disap- 
pears naturally,  when  eight  to  nine  months  of  age. 
A  stunted  colt  means  a  handicapped  horse. 

The  fall  colt.— By  the  middle  of  May,  or  before, 
will  have  been  weaned,  will  have  all  of  its  incisor 
milk  teeth,  and  will  make  rapid  growth  without  con- 
centrated food  when  turned  out  to  pasture. 

We  may  now  sum  up  the  transaction:  The  brood- 
mare has  earned  by  her  work  her  own  and  her  foal's 
food  and,  in  addition,  enough  to  pay  an  ordinary  bill 
for  services  of  stallion.  The  value  of  the  colt,  when 
weaned,  will  usually  range  somewhere  between  thirty 
and  one  hundred  dollars,  the  larger  part  of  which  will 
be  profit.  After  the  foal  has  been  turned  co  pasture, 
it  will  require  but  little  attention  or  grain,  either 
summer  or  winter.  The  cost  of  its  food  will  usually 
be  between  fifteen  and  twenty -five  dollars  per  year. 
The  colt,  unless  thoroughbred  or  trotter,  maybe  made 
to  earn  its  keep  after  it  is  three  years  of  age. 

NOTE.  Colt — the  male  offspring  of  the  mare  when  less  than 
five  years  old.  At  five,  the  name  changes  to  gelding  or  stallion. 
Filly  —  the  female  offspring  up  to  five  years  of  age  or  less,  after- 
ward a  mare.  The  word  colt  is  also  used  generically  for  a  male  or 
female,  under  five  years  of  age.  Foal  —  a  young  colt  of  either  sex. 


SIGNS   OF  APPROACHING  PARTURITION          219 
PERIOD   OF    GESTATION   AND   PARTURITION 

The  normal  period  of  gestation  may  be  placed  at 
three  hundred  and  forty  days,  though  it  varies  in  horses 
as  it  does  in  all  other  species  of  mammals.  Veterinary 
writers  usually  place  the  minimum  period  at  three 
hundred,  and  the  maximum  at  four  hundred  days,  for 
mares.  Some  breeders  believe  that  if  the  normal 
period  of  gestation  is  exceeded  it  indicates  the  proba- 
bility of  a  male  colt. 

If  there  is  more  than  one  mare  to  be  bred,  the  stint- 
ing of  them  as  near  together  as  possible  will  diminish 
the  work  of  the  care-taker  at  foaling  time.  As  the 
time  of  parturition  approaches,  an  attendant  should  be 
close  at  hand,  both  day  and  night;  and  several  foals 
and  mares  can  thus  be  cared  for  with  the  minimum  of 
extra  attention. 

The  period  of  gestation  being  variable,  the  mare 
should  be  closely  watched  as  her  normal  time  of  bring- 
ing forth  young  approaches.  There  are  signs  of  the 
near  approach  of  parturition  which,  though  not  infal- 
lible, give  indication  of  near  delivery.  The  udder  may 
become  greatly  distended,  especially  in  the  morning, 
but  exercise  usually  reduces  it.  The  teats  seldom 
become  large  and  plump  more  than  two  or  three  days 
before  the  foal  is  dropped.  A  large  udder  does  not 
necessarily  imply  near  approach  to  delivery.  The  waxy 
substance  which  closes  the  ends  of  the  teats  usually 
loosens  and  allows  the  milk  to  escape  about  one  day 
prior  to  the  birth  of  the  foal.  Sometimes  the  foal  is 
born  before  there  is  sufficient  flow  of  milk  to  sustain 


220  THE    HORSE 

it,  in  which  case  resort  must  be  had  to  the  nursing- 
bottle.  About  one  week  before  parturition  occurs,  a 
shrinking  and  falling  away  of  the  muscles  of  the  buttock 
near  the  root  of  the  tail  takes  place. 

The  mare's  milk  is  relatively  poor  in  fat  and  protein 
and  rich  in  sugar.  If  cow's  milk  must,  for  a  time,  be 
substituted  for  the  mare's,  in  part  or  in  whole,  that  of 
a  fresh  young  cow  should  be  used.  It  may  be  modified 
by  adding  a  little  water  to  reduce  the  per  cent  of  fat 
and  protein,  and  a  little  sugar  that  the  modified  milk 
may  be  similar  in  constituents  to  the  dam's.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  milk,  when  fed,  should  be  98°  to  100° 
Fahr.  In  cold  weather  there  is  danger  that  the  milk, 
while  being  used,  will  fall  below  the  proper  tempera- 
ture. To  obviate  this,  wrap  thick,  hot,  woollen  cloths 
around  the  bottle.  About  one -fourth  to  one -third  of 
a  pint  of  the  modified  milk  may  be  given  every  two 
hours,  gradually  reducing  it  as  the  mother's  milk 
becomes  available. 

The  colostrum,  or  first  milk  after  parturition,  as 
already  shown,  tends  to  move  the  foal's  bowels,  which 
is  beneficial.  The  modified  milk,  on. the  other  hand, 
tends  toward  constipation;  therefore  the  bottle-fed  foal 
should  be  given  a  mild  physic. 

The  bowels  of  foals  which  nurse  their  mothers  may 
be  moved  by  administering  to  them  two  to  four  ounces 
of  unboiled  linseed  oil  or  the  same  quantity  of  castor 
oil,  or  by  an  injection  of  water  at  a  temperature  of 
100°  F. ;  or  administer  to  the  dam  one  pint  of  either 
of  the  above-named  oils.  The  feeding  of  succulent 
foods  tends  to  hasten  the  flow  of  milk  after  parturition; 


THE  BOY  BE  A  BOY  AND  THE  COLT  A  COLT  221 

dry,  carbonaceous  foods,  to  delay  the  milk  flow.  (For 
teething,  see  Chapter  XV.) 

The  foal  should  not  be  petted,  but  kindness  and 
firmness  should  be  used  in  handling  it.  Sometimes  the 
attempt  is  made  to  educate  the  foal  beyond  its  ability 
to  receive  instruction.  It  is  a  mistake  to  attempt  to 
educate  either  boys  or  foals  above  their  capacity.  The 
colt  trained  to  all  the  ways  of  mature  horses  is  sure 
to  be  put  to  horse -work  too  young.  Let  the  boy  be  a 
boy,  and  the  colt  a  colt.  While  the  foal  is  yet  with  its 
dam,  it  should  be  taught  to  lead  and  to  allow  its  feet 
to  be  handled.  The  paramount  object  in  all  kinder- 
garten work  with  the  foal  is  to  teach  it  prompt  obedi- 
ence and  to  inspire  it  with  courage  and  confidence.  It 
should  be  taught  to  follow  unhesitatingly  when  it  is  led. 
It  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  its  legs  entangled  in 
stable  floors,  bridges  or  fences,  and  it  should  never  be 
purposely  frightened.  The  colt  arid  the  filly,  as  well  as 
mature  animals,  discern  quickly  a  timid,  hesitating  or 
incompetent  attendant  or  driver.  As  the  attendant  is, 
so  is  the  future  mature  animal  likely  to  be.  Teach  the 
foal  but  little;  but  what  little  education  it  does  receive 
should  be  so  thorough  that  it  will  be  retained  through 
life.  Young  colts  are  nervous;  endeavor  to  strengthen 
their  nerves  by  implanting  confidence,  which  tends  to 
allay  nervousness. 

Much  space  has  been  given  to  the  brood-mare  and 
her  offspring,  because  these  are  the  foundations  'upon 
which  success  or  failure  rests.  But  it  will  be  necessary 
to  add  something  by  way  of  suggestion  as  to  the 
business  of  breeding  horses,  selecting  breeds  to  suit 


222  THE    HORSE 

environment  and  use,  and  how  to  dovetail  the  breeding 
and  rearing  of  a  few  colts  with  the  manifold  activities 
of  a  diversified  agriculture,  carried  on  in  a  diversified 
climate  on  radically  different  soils. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR    THE    BEGINNER 

A  clearly  defined  plan  of  what  is  desired  to  accom- 
plish should  first  be  made.  To  do  this,  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  horse  and  horse-breeding  should  be  secured 
from  all  available  sources.  Breeding  establishments 
should  be  visited,  and  the  successes  and  failures  noted. 
The  beginner  should  become  acquainted  with  successful 
and  distinguished  horse-breeders, —  in  fact,  become  a 
pupil  for  a  few  hours  or  a  few  days,  of  those  men 
who,  above  all  others,  are  able  to  teach.  All  of  this 
preparation  and  more  is  desirable,  even  if  but  a  few 
colts  are  to  be  bred  yearly  on  the  farm  devoted  to 
mixed  husbandry. 

It  should  be  clearly  kept  in  mind  that,  from  this 
time  on,  none  but  superior  horses  will  sell  at  remu- 
nerative prices.  The  man  who  is  able  prefers  his  own 
carriage  to  the  street -car;  but  everybody  prefers  the 
street -car  to  a  carriage  drawn  by  a  "lame,  woolly 
horse."  Do  the  best  we  can,  there  will  always  be 
enough  mistakes  in  horse  -  breeding  to  supply  the 
demand  for  cheap  hack-about  animals.  I  doubt  if  the 
market  will  ever  be  overstocked  with  superior  animals 
—  roadsters,  coach-,  saddle-  and  draft-horses. 

For  all  except  the  few  professional  horse-breeders, — 
who  should  confine  themselves  to  the  production  of 


ADAPTATION  OF  BREEDS  TO  ENVIRONMENT      223 

thoroughbreds,  full-bloods  and  standard-bred  animals, 
—  the  following  suggestions  may  be  of  value: 

Care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  breed  which  best 
suits  the  farm,  the  local  markets  and  the  tastes  of  the 
breeder.  Roadsters  naturally  belong  on  land  devoted 
to  grass  and  the  dairy  industry.  Here  but  little  plow- 
ing and  other  hard  work  will  be  required,  and  the 
necessity  of  reaching  the  market  town,  the  station  or 
the  creamery,  daily,  indicates  that  a  light,  quick- 
moving  horse,  especially  if  the  country  is  rolling, 
would  be  best. 

The  coach-horse  may  well  be  bred  on  farms  which 
require  a  somewhat  larger  horse  than  the  dairy  farm, 
but  not  so  large  as  the  grain  farm.  Coachers  are  well 
adapted  to  the  fruit  farm,  with  one  exception, —  they 
are  too  tall  to  be  used  to  the  best  advantage  in  the 
tillage  of  orchards. 

Farms  devoted  largely  to  grain -raising,  unless  the 
land  is  light  in  character,  call  for  heavy  horses.  Here 
the  draft -horse  finds  his  true  place  while  he  is  acquiring 
age  and  solidity  before  he  reaches  his  final  destination 
—  the  busy  city.  Mature  horses  are  for  the  city, 
young  horses  for  the  farm. 

The  blood-horse  is  not  well  adapted  to  farm  labor. 
Few  of  them  are  required;  therefore,  the  farmer  carry- 
ing on  several  lines  of  activity  should  not  attempt  to 
breed  this  high -mettled  horse,  even  if  he  is  beautiful. 

The  rearing  of  horses  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  highest  class  of  animals  —  those  which  are  to  be 
used  largely  for  recreation  —  should  always  be  in  the 
hands  of  a  comparatively  few  skilled  horsemen,  If  the 


224  THE   HORSE 

farmer  engaged  in  many  enterprises  has  use  for  a  well- 
bred  roadster,  or  one  with  a  long  line  of  distin- 
guished ancestors,  he  will  find  it  cheaper  in  the  end 
to  purchase  such  a  horse  than  to  attempt  to  breed  and 
rear  it. 

Should  the  farmer  engaged  in  a  more  or  less  mixed 
agriculture  attempt  to  breed  and  raise  horses?  Should 
many  of  the  dairymen  part  with  a  few  of  the  poorer 
cows  and  in  time  breed  colts  to  take  their  places  in 
the  stalls?  Would  it  be  wise  for  most  grain  farmers 
to  replenish  their  work -stock  and  have  one  or  more 
spans  of  horses  to  sell  each  year?  To  all  these  questions 
the  answer  is  emphatically,  yes.  Some  farmers  appear 
to  have  but  one  idea,  viz.,  that  the  town  or  city  is  the 
place  to  buy  things,  even  horses;  when  cities  and  vil- 
lages should  be  looked  upon  by  the  farmer  as  places 
to  sell  things,  and  to  buy  only  what  cannot  well  be 
produced  at  home. 

It  is  said  that  the  horse  is  to  be  supplanted  by 
mechanical  contrivances,  which  will  take  his  place  in 
the  street,  the  field  and  for  recreation.  It  is  also  con- 
tended that  horses  are  too  expensive,  in  that  they 
require  feed  and  care  when  not  at  work;  while  the 
bicycle,  the  automobile  and  the  street -car  require  no 
care  when  not  in  use.  The  last  argument  may  be  met 
with  the  fact  that  nearly  all  classes-  of  machinery  and 
appliances  rust  out  and  depreciate  when  not  in  use 
faster  than  when  they  are  constantly  employed. 

Formerly,  horses  were  used  extensively  during  the 
winter  months.  Cord-wood,  logs  and  various  obstruc- 
tions to  tillage  had  to  be  removed,  They  were  also 


COLT  RAISING   PROFITABLE  225 

used  extensively  for  freighting  and  for  travel.  All 
these  primitive  conditions  are  passing  away  and  most 
of  the  farm -horses  are  now  idle  for  nearly  half  of  the 
year.  To  economize,  they  are  kept  on  coarse  and  innu- 
tritions foods  and  have  little  or  no  exercise.  All  this 
results  in  soft  muscles,  weakened  vitality,  soft  and 
distorted  feet;  and  in  all  ways  the  horse  becomes, 
during  the  winter,  more  or  less  incapacitated  for  the 
difficult  spring  work.  Can  these  conditions  be  im- 
proved? I  think  they  can;  and  the  following  some- 
what specific  directions,  if  carried  out,  will,  it  is 
believed,  materially  increase  profits  and  better  con- 
ditions. 

Brood-mares  should  be  kept  on  the  farms  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  they  are,  and  fewer  mares 
should  go  to  the  city.  None  but  mature  horses  of  not 
less  than  six  to  seven  years  of  age  should  be  used  on 
pavements;  while  the  brood-mares  and  the  young 
animals,  with  their  immature  and  soft  bones  and  mus- 
cles, find  a  congenial  home  in  the  green  pastures  and 
on  the  soft,  moist  earth  of  the  plowed  field. 

We  believe  that  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  horses 
by  farmers  who  are  engaged  in  mixed  farming,  where 
three  or  more  farm-  and  driving-animals  are  kept  for 
each  one  hundred  acres  of  land,  can  be  made  profit- 
able. It  costs  about  fifteen  to  twenty -five  dollars  more 
to  breed  and  rear  a  colt  up  to  the  age  of  three  years 
than  it  does  to  rear  a  heifer  to  the  same  age.  The  colt 
may  sell  for  seventy -five  to  one  hundred  dollars,  while 
the  heifer,  unless  she  be  pure  and  highly  bred,  may 
bring  thirty -five  dollars.  The  farmer  whose  time  is 


226  THE   HORSE 

occupied  in  carrying  on  several  lines  of  activity,  such 
as  grain,  fruit  and  berry  industries,  would  better  not 
attempt  to  breed  the  larger  varieties  of  pure-blooded 
animals.  For  him  the  breeding  of  grade  cattle,  sheep 
and  horses  is  likely  to  be  more  remunerative  than  the 
purchasing  of  them  when  wanted,  or  the  breeding  of 
pure  animals,  which  necessitates  large  expenditures  for 
foundation  stock.  Most  farmers  would  better  master 
the  art  of  successful  live-stock  breeding  by  the  pro- 
duction of  grades.  If  eminently  successful  in  this,  it 
is  easy  to  change  to  the  breeding  of  pure-blooded 
animals  when  the  principles  and  practices  of  breeding 
are  mastered.  The  breeding  of  superior  grades  pre- 
supposes that  the  dams  are  selected  with  a  specific 
purpose  in  view,  and  that  their  sires  are  pure-blooded 
animals  selected  from  the  stables  of  those  whose  chief 
business  is  to  breed  and  rear  superior  pure-blooded 
animals  endowed  with  strong,  specialized  characteris- 
tics. It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  horses  with 
draft  bodies  and  roadster  limbs  and  feet,  or  with  these 
characteristics  reversed.  Some  have  large,  ill -shaped 
heads  and  legs  and  beefy  shoulders,  with  the  trotter's 
loins  and  hindquarters.  Too  often,  the  feet  and  limbs 
are  not  well  adapted  to  the  body -weight  or  the  work 
which  the  horses  are  called  on  to  do.  In  pioneer  days, 
oxen  were  largely  used  for  farm  work;  but,  when  the 
forests  were  cleared  away  and  the  country  lad  had 
outgrown  his  homespun  suit,  he  longed  for  more 
rapid  transit  than  could  be  secured  even  from  his 
yoke  of  frisky  steers. 

As  yet   the    true  draft -horse  was   not   thought   of. 


THE   MORGAN  HORSE  227 

The  desire  was  to  secure  a  quick -moving,  pleasure- 
giving,  saddle-  and  road-horse.  In  New  England,  the 
Morgan  horse  came  to  supply  a  long-felt  want  of 
bright  farm  boys.  But  the  fitness  of  the  horse  of  that 
period  for  agricultural  work  was  not  entirely  lost  sight 
of.  The  boys  were  looking  for  a  horse  that  could  out- 
trot,  out-run,  out-jump  any  other  horse,  and  could 
pull  anything  that  had  one  end  loose.  The  Morgan 
horse  came  nearer  to  fulfilling  these  requirements  than 
any  other  horse  of  that  period.  In  most  sections  of  the 
country  there  were  few  well-bred,  prepotent  horses, 
like  the  Morgans,  for  improving  the  nondescript  farm- 
horse.  It  is  only  within  the  last  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  an  intelligent  grasp  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  breeding  has  been  secured  by  a 
few;  and  a  fairly  clear  comprehension  of  the  reproduc- 
tion and  improvement  of  domestic  animals  has  not  yet 
been  secured  by  the  great  majority  of  breeders,  although 
many  farmers  are  breeders  of  horses.  The  lack  of 
adequate  knowledge  of  the  principles  which  should 
govern  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  horses  is  appar- 
ent in  the  multitude  of  unsymmetrical,  inefficient  horses 
seen  alike  in  country  and  city.  Had  not  progressive, 
far-seeing  horsemen  imported  numbers  of  the  best 
animals  of  Europe,  the  horses  of  America  would  be 
more  inferior  than  they  are  —  perhaps  as  poor  as  are 
those  of  China. 

It  is  only  in  the  last  decade  that  the  farm -boy  has 
had  any  opportunity  for  securing  instruction  in  the 
science  of  breeding  good  horses.  As  yet,  but  few  have 
availed  themselves  of  even  the  meager  provisions  which 


228  THE   HORSE 

are  offered.  The  wonder  is  that  the  horses  are  as  good 
as  they  are.  The  native  ability  of  the  American  boy, 
the  abundance  of  suitable  food  and  a  propitious  climate 
have  done  much  to  arrest  deterioration  of  the  horse 
when  in  the  hands  of  careless  owners. 

In  some  localities,  the  combined  influences  of  food, 
climate  and  skill  of  the  breeder,  have  improved  the 
horses,  without  the  aid  of  a  liberal  admixture  of 
imported  animals  of  acknowledged  superior  qualities. 
Under  the  best  conditions,  many  superior  horses  have 
been  bred  from  animals  of  mixed  blood,— that  is,  from 
those  whose  ancestry  may  be  traced  to  several  breeds 
or  to  no  breed.  While  this  careless  mating  of  animals 
of  quite  different  characteristics  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, yet  it  must  be  said  that  many  fine  horses  have 
been  produced  by  this  effort  to  breed  a  general -purpose 
horse.  In  older  countries,  the  various  breeds  of  horses 
are  soon  adjusted  to  the  localities  and  conditions  best 
suited  to  their  specialized  qualities.  In  a  new  country, 
like  America,  too  often  the  heavy  horse  is  found  in  the 
rough  dairy  districts  and  the  light  one  on  the  tenacious, 
heavy-clay  grain  farms.  In  time,  horses  will  be  bred 
not  only  for  special  purposes  but  to  suit  the  climate, 
soil  and  local  conditions.  True,  no  hard-and-fast  lines 
can  be  drawn,  but  the  time  will  come  when  the  light 
roadster  will  find  no  place  on  the  heavy  grain  lands,  nor 
will  the  draft  animals  be  used  for  carriage  and  road 
work. 

During  the  last  twenty -five  years,  the  increasing 
heavy  traffic  of  our  numerous  cities  and  villages  has 
demanded  more  and  heavier  horses  than  were  formerly 


BETTER  HORSES   FOR   THE   FUTURE  229 

required.  This  demand  has  been  met  by  the  importa- 
tion and  breeding  of  large  numbers  of  Clydesdales  and 
Percherons  and  a  few  others  of  less -known  draft- 
breeds  from  Europe  and  Canada.  The  growing  com- 
mercial cities  of  the  West,  especially  Chicago,  have 
also  furnished  a  good  and  increasing  demand  for 
heavy  horses,  until  within  the  last  few  years.  The 
breeders  of  Illinois  responded  quickly,  arid  for  a 
time  this  single  commonwealth  contained  nearly  one- 
tenth  of  all  of  the  horses  of  the  United  States.  Not- 
withstanding the  large  numbers  bred  and  imported, 
prices  for  good  horses  remained  steady  and  remunera- 
tive for  a  long  time.  Recently,  the  great  production  of 
horses  on  the  prairies  and  the  introduction  of  electricity 
and  steam-power,  both  being  utilized  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  goods  and  passengers,  have  resulted  in  check- 
ing the  demand  and  in  lowering  prices.  In  extreme 
cases,  horses  were  sold  at  ruinous  prices  or  slaughtered 
from  humanitarian  reasons.  In  some  cases  the 
slaughtered  animals  were  packed  and  marketed  for 
food. 

At  the  present  time,  the  demand  has  overtaken  the 
supply,  and  good  horses,  bred  for  special  purposes, 
again  bring  remunerative  prices.  In  the  future,  not  so 
many  horses  per  thousand  inhabitants  will  be  required 
as  formerly,  but  there  will  always  be  a  large  place  in 
America  for  the  horse.  Nothing  can  drive  him  from  the 
streets  of  the  city  or  the  fields  of  the  rural  districts. 
But,  from  this  on,  purchasers  will  be  more  critical  than 
formerly,  and  hence  a  better  class  of  horses  and  those 
of  specialized  characteristics  will  be  demanded. 


230  THE    HORSE 

Something  of  the  history  of  the  horse  and  the  con- 
ditions in  America  which  have  tended  to  produce  large 
numbers  of  varied  characteristics  have  been  discussed. 
It  is  ascertained  that  no  native  horses  were  found  on 
the  continent  and  that  a  large  number  of  horses  of 
varied  qualities  have  been  imported;  that  these  have 
been  bred,  in  many  cases,  with  little  care  and  judg- 
ment. As  might  have  been  predicted,  our  horses  at 
the  present  time  have  many  characteristics.  Few  of 
them  are  homogeneous, —  that  is,  little  care  has  been 
taken  until  recently  to  breed  for  special  purposes  and 
for  uniform  characteristics;  hence,  most  of  the  horses 
are  not  likely  to  produce  uniform  offspring  when  bred 
together.  However,  when  coupled  with  pure -bred  and 
full -blood  horses  more  uniform  characteristics  are 
likely  to  appear.  There  are  some  compensations  for 
this  unstable  blood,  for  it  can  be  easily  molded  and 
directed  into  well-defined  lines  by  the  admixture  of 
well-bred  horses  of  prepotent  qualities.  Happily,  we 
already  have  large  numbers  of  most  excellent  thorough- 
bred and  full -blood  sires.  From  these,  selections  can 
easily  be  made.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  import 
large  numbers  of  foreign  horses,  to  secure  those  worthy 
of  a  place  at  the  head  of  the  breeding  establishments. 

In  selecting  a  stallion,  the  beginner  should  be  careful 
and  not  be  led  astray  by  a  fragmentary  pedigree  with 
one  or  two  high-sounding  names,  five  or  six  generations 
removed.  Sometimes  the  name  of  a  noted  horse,  as 
Flying  Childers,  appears  at  the  end  of  a  pedigree.  The 
blood  of  a  noted  horse  is  supposed  to  impart  great  value 
to  the  animal  whose  pedigree  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 


BETTER  FOOD,  ENVIRONMENT  AND   BLOOD      231 

generation  goes  back  to  one  or  two  more  or  less  noted 
ancestors.  If  the  distinguished  blood  has  not  been 
fortified  by  some  inbreeding,  by  the  tenth  generation 
the  offspring  would  contain  but  one  part  of  the  dis- 
tinguished blood  to  1,023  parts  of  blood  from  other 
sources.  Surely,  but  few  valuable  qualities  of  a  single 
remote  distinguished  ancestor  would  be  likely  to  appear 
in  the  offspring.  It  is  not  wise  to  lay  too  much  stress 
on  the  value  of  the  blood  of  remote  ancestors,  which 
has  been  diluted  many  times.  The  improvement  of 
the  horse,  where  he  has  been  improved,  has  been  due 
largely  to  three  principal  causes:  improved  food,  bet- 
ter environment  and  more  rational  use  and  training, 
and  the  infusion  of  new  and  better  blood. 

A  man  who  wished  to  stint  his  mare  was  asked  if 
he  wanted  to  inspect  the  stallion.  "No,"  he  said,  "I 
have  inspected  his  colts."  So  the  beginner  should 
inspect  the  get  of  a  horse,  if  possible,  before  he 
patronizes  him. 


CHAPTER    XV 

JUDGING   HORSES 

THE  purchaser  should  know  something  of  the  an- 
cestors of  the  animal  under  consideration,  as  a  horse 
may  have  inherited  characteristics  arid  specialized 
qualities  which  cannot  be  discovered  until  the  animal 
has  been  used  for  some  time.  Only  in  rare  cases  has 
the  purchaser  an  opportunity  before  buying  to  drive 
the  horse  enough  to  discover  all  of  its  desirable  or 
undesirable  qualities,  or  its  probable  future  develop- 
ment. Therefore,  the  breedng  of  the  animal,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  pedigree,  written  or  unwritten,  should 
be  fairly  well  known,  when  possible. 

The  selling  of  horses  gives  the  owner  great  oppor- 
tunity to  indulge  in  exaggerated  statements,  even  to 
misrepresent  and  to  skilfully  conceal  defects  and  the 
true  age  of  the  horse  without  becoming  legally  liable. 
The  seller  may  offer  to  guarantee  the  animal  to  be 
sound  and  free  from  vicious  habits;  but  even  then 
there  are  usually  loopholes  left  in  the  guarantee  through 
which  the  seller  may  crawl  by  the  aid  of  a  lawyer,  if 
he  leave  his  conscience  behind.  It  is  often  wise  first 
to  investigate  the  pedigree  of  the  man  offering  a  horse 
for  sale  before  looking  up  the  history  and  pedigree  of 
the  horse,  especially  if  he  has  bred  and  raised  the  animal 
under  consideration. 

(232) 


TRICKS    OF    THE   TRADE  233 

If  the  animal  has  passed  through  many  hands, 
remaining  with  no  owner  any  considerable  length  of 
time,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  there  is  some  radical 
fault  or  blemish  which  is  not  easily  discoverable.  If  a 
horse  is  purchased  of  a  thoroughly  reliable  dealer  or 
breeder,  it  is  only  fair  that  something  of  the  price  of 
the  animal  be  considered  as  representing  the  reputation 
of  the  seller.  One  can  afford  to  pay  more  for  a  purchase 
from  a  well-known,  reputable  horseman  than  from  a 
stranger. 

The  horse  should  be  led  out  of  the  stable  slowly. 
While  this  is  being  done,  stand  at  some  little  distance 
in  front  of  the  animal.  Little  defects,  such  as  slight 
lameness,  may  be  detected  if  the  animal  is  not  excited. 
Some  horsemen  make  it  a  practice  to  excite  their  horses, 
even  when  standing  in  the  stalls,  by  sharp  words  and 
a  liberal  use  of  the  whip.  All  this  tends  to  make  the 
horse  hold  his  head  high,  to  forget  for  the  time  the 
pain  in  an  unsound  foot  or  limb,  and  to  appear  alert, 
spirited  and  beautiful.  These  little  tricks  of  the  trade 
are  sometimes  seen  at  professional  horse  sales. 

In  judging  horses,  four  ideas  are  paramount:  abil- 
ity to  perform  the  service  desired,  reliability,  endur- 
ance, and  symmetry  and  beauty  of  form.  True  service 
consists  in  using  energy  economically,  that  it  may  give 
satisfaction  to  the  owner,  whether  the  energy  be 
expended  in  moving  heavy  loads  or  in  covering  the 
greatest  distance  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  Horses, 
then,  should  be  selected  with  the  view  of  securing  the 
results  desired  in  the  most  economical  manner.  Since 
they  are  put  to  a  variety  of  uses  and  are  placed  under 


234  THE    HORSE 

greatly  varying  conditions,  it  follows  that  they  should 
have  widely  different  characteristics  if  they  perform  the 
different  kinds  of  service  satisfactorily.  The  horse 
should,  therefore,  not  only  be  good  but  also  be  suited 
to  the  service  he  is  called  upon  to  perform.  He  should 
be  trustworthy,  that  is,  free  from  vicious  habits. 
Utility  is  not  all,  however;  beauty  in  the  horse  counts 
for  much.  Many  horses  are  kept  neither  for  laborious 
work  nor  for  fast  driving.  The  family  horse  is  the 
most  conspicuous  type  of  this  class.  A  large  number 
of  horses  besides  the  true  family  horse  are  not  called  on 
for  either  laborious  work  or  for  rapid  driving.  Beauty 
or  symmetry  of  form  in  all  this  class  counts  for  more 
than  either  superior  strength  or  speed  if  they  be  trust- 
worthy. But  what  is  beauty !  On  a  true  roadster  a 
neck  with  straight  or  concave  top  line  would  be  appro- 
priate, and,  because  appropriate,  beautiful;  but  such  a 
shaped  neck  on  a  draft -horse  would  not  only  offend 
the  eye  but  be  incongruous.  Beauty,  then,  may,  be  of 
two  kinds — that  which  is  beautiful  because  appropriate, 
and  that  which  exhibits  the  blending  of  forms  or  lines 
or  colors  so  harmoniously  that  the  thought  of  abstract 
beauty  is  emphasized  above  the  idea  of  mere  utility. 
So  the  horse  may  be  valued  for  the  highest  beauty 
consistent  with  greatest  usefulness,  or  for  attrac- 
tiveness in  form,  color  and  action.  Fortunately, 
beautiful,  useful  and  appropriate  qualities  may  be  com- 
bined to  a  large  degree  in  a  single  animal;  because, 
where  all  parts  of  the  horse  are  symmetrical  and 
adjusted  to  serve  in  the  best  manner  the  purposes  for 
which  the  horse  is  maintained,  many  lines  of  beauty 


COLOR   OF  HORSES  235 

will  necessarily  be  present.  A  good  draft-horse  may  be 
beautiful,  though  not  so  beautiful  as  a  Kentucky 
saddle-horse. 

Advancing  civilization  demands  not  only  a  useful, 
but  a  beautiful  horse,  and  the  breeder  is  wise  who  now 
pays  much  attention  to  the  quality  of  beauty,  even  if 
the  horses  he  is  raising  are  designed  to  do  laborious 
work.  The  color  of  the  hair  and  its  texture,  as  well  as 
symmetry  and  temper  (for  a  horse  may  have  a  "beauti- 
ful "  temper) ,  may  add  to  or  detract  from  the  beauty  of 
the  animal  and  its  value  and  selling  price,  whether 
draft -horse  or  roadster.  All  that  has  been  said  is  to 
emphasize  the  need  of  producing  in  the  future  not  only 
better,  but  more  beautiful  horses. 

The  colors  of  horses  may  be  either  beautiful  or  strik- 
ing. The  calico,  or  piebald  horses,  when  seen  on  the 
street  or  under  a  circus  tent,  certainly  attract  attention; 
but  persons  of  good  taste  usually  select  horses  of  solid 
colors.  Only  in  rare  cases  are  unusual  colors  preferred, 
and  then  for  the  purpose  of  advertising  or  attracting 
business,  or  for  the  delectation  of  children.  Bright 
bay.  seal -brown  and  dark  chestnut  are  the  colors  pre- 
ferred, because  they  are  not  only  beautiful  but  usually 
do  not  fade  in  hot  weather.  Horses  of  these  colors  are 
more  easily  kept  presentable  than  light -colored  ones, 
and  in  old  age  their  coats  do  not  become  unsightly, — 
that  is  stained,  "flea-bitten"  or  rusty.  Black  horses 
seldom  retain  the  full  brilliancy  of  their  coat;  when 
exposed  to  the  sun,  the  black  often  changes  to  a  dirty, 
unsightly  brown.  It  is  believed  that  darkish  skin,  hair 
and  hoofs  have  the  power  to  resist  some  of  the  skin, 


236  THE    HORSE 

leg  and  hoof  troubles  to  a  greater  degree  than  those  of 
light  colors.  Many  think  that  dark-colored  animals, 
like  brown  men,  are  able  to  withstand  adverse  condi- 
tions better  than  those  of  light  color.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  it  is  safest  to  select  animals  of  strong  colors  with 
dark  points. 

The  size  of  the  horse  is  sometimes  an  important 
factor  in  determining  price,  or  rather  the  amount  which 
can  be  realized  for  him.  Large  horses,  other  things 
being  equal,  usually  command  a  higher  price  than  those 
of  medium  size,  and  those  of  medium  size  more  than 
small  ones.  But  the  largest  types  of  horses,  be  they 
draft,  coach  or  roadster,  are  more  difficult  to  produce, 
and  when  produced  are  more  in  danger  of  becoming 
unsound  than  medium -sized  ones.  As  these  pages  are 
for  the  farmer,  and  not  for  the  professional  breeder,  the 
advice  is  not  to  attempt  to  produce  monstrosities  or 
even  the  largest  types  of  any  class  of  domesticated 
animals.  Good  profits  are  seldom  secured  by  rearing 
horses  which  weigh  a  ton,  or  cows  which  tip  the  scales 
at  sixteen  hundred  pounds,  or  pigs  which  weigh  half  as 
much  as  horses  do.  One  escapes  a  multitude  of  disap- 
pointments by  holding  on  to  a  little  good  "horse -sense." 

It  might  be  thought  that  judging  and  selecting 
horses  would  be  an  easy  task,  since,  unlike  the  cow 
and  sheep,  the  horse  is  prized  largely  for  his  stored 
energy;  but  the  conditions  under  which  he  must  exert 
his  powers  are  so  varied;  the  first  cost  and  the  keep 
of  a  horse  are  so  great;  he  is  so  liable  to  become 
unsound,  so  utterly  useless  when  incapacitated  for 
work,  so  disappointing  if  bad  tempered  or  without 


A  FEW  GROUPS  OF  HORSES          237 

temper;  that  the  judging  of  horses  becomes  exceed- 
ingly difficult.  It  seems  that  some  directions  "as  to  how 
one  may  be  least  cheated  when  purchasing  a  horse " 
should  be  given. 

Horses  naturally  fall  into  a  few  groups.  The  draft- 
horse  of  laborious  work,  the  coacher,  the  roadster, 
the  runner  (thoroughbred),  the  saddle-horse  and  the 
children's  horse  or  pony.  Some  of  these  groups  over- 
lap each  other,  and,  while  a  good  roadster  or 
thoroughbred  may  make  a  tolerable  saddle-horse,  they 
cannot  be  first -class  in  their  own  group  and  also 
first-class  in  another  group.  There  is  still  another 
class  of  horses,  which  does  not  belong  to  any  group. 
They  are  nondescripts,  that  is  a  mixture  of  unknown 
blood  or  mixed  blood  in  unknown  quantities;  careless 
breeding  seldom  produces  valuable  animals.  An  animal 
with  no  marked  or  striking  characteristics  in  any 
direction  never  attracts  a  good  horseman. 

In  judging  a  horse,  one  should  first  classify  him  — 
that  is,  think  of  him  as  belonging  to  some  one  of  the 
groups;  for  an  animal  may  be  good  if  used  for  one 
purpose  and  very  poor  if  used  for  another.  However, 
there  are  some  characteristics  which  all  horses  should 
have  in  common;  therefore  our  first  discussion  may 
be  along  general  lines. 

It  is  desirable  that  all  horses  should  have  good 
eyes,  sound  limbs  and  feet,  good  temper,  and  be  free 
from  serious  blemishes  and  vicious  habits. 

It  is  far  easier  to  detect  some  blemishes  and  some 
objectionable  traits  if  the  animal  be  examined  when 
he  is  quiet.  First  notice  the  horse  in  the  stable.  If 


238 


THE    HORSE 


FIG.  51.    Cow  hocked. 


he  stands  with  one  front  foot  at  ease,  that  is,  pointed 
to  the  front,  he  is  unsound  somewhere  in  his  front 
limbs  or  shoulders,  or  in  both. 
Sound  horses  invariably  stand  with 
their  front  feet  in  such  positions 
that  the  weight  will  be  borne 
equally,  or  nearly  so,  on  both  feet. 
Not  so  with  the  hind  limbs;  for 
a  horse  often  stands  with  nearly 
all  his  posterior  weight  thrown  on 
one  leg  while  resting  the  other, 
and,  while  he  may  be  unsound, 
such  habit  is  usually  not  proof  of 
it.  A  horse  may  be  sound  and  yet 
be  so  awkwardly  put  together  as  to 
greatly  reduce  value  and  price. 
The  purchaser,  after  having  ex- 
amined the  horse  in  the  stable, 
should  have  him  led  out  quietly 
into  an  open  space.  Here  the 
eyes  should  be  critically  exam- 
ined. If  the  sunlight  is  bright, 
the  hat  may  be  held  above  the 
eye  to  cut  off  the  dazzling  rays 
of  the  sun  while  the  eye  is  being 
observed.  It  is  usual  to  wave 
the  hand  in  front  of  the  eye  as 
an  additional  test;  but  the  rapid 
movement  of  air  in  front  of  the  FlG- 52-  A  pointer. 
hand  may  cause  even  a  blind  horse  to  wink.  A  better 
method  is  to  approach  the  eye  with  the  hand,  in  a  nearly 


MAJOR  AND   MINOR   DEFECTS 


239 


horizontal  position,  and  with  all  the  fingers,  except  the 
index  finger,  closed. 

Before  proceeding  farther,  it  may  be  stated  that 
defects  and  blemishes  should  be  classified  as  major 
and  minor.  Many  little  imperfections  are  to  be  found 
in  even  the  best  of  horses,  but  these 
may  not  seriously  reduce  values  or 
usefulness.  The  ear  may  be  a  shade 
too  large,  the  forehead  a  little  too 
narrow  or  the  nostrils  not  so  thin  and 
open  as  desired;  but  these  all  sink 
into  insignificance  beside  curby  legs, 
calf  hocks  and  poor  feet.  A  slight 
thickening  of  the  skin,  small  round 
puffs  and  even  more  pronounced 
blemishes  may  be  ignored,  if  theyvi; 
are  not  located  at  dangerous  points  'Fl(T53  Reversion  to 
and  have  the  appearance  of  being  original  type, 
quiescent.  While  a  critical  examination  of  all  parts 
of  the  horse  should  be  made  before  purchasing,  it  is 
believed  that  even  the  boy  on  the  farm  will  be  able 
to  distinguish  between  major  and  minor  defects,  now 
that  attention  has  been  called  to  them. 

Hazel -colored  eyes  are  believed  to  be  better  than 
dark  ones.  Bright,  prominent  open  eyes  are  better 
than  those  which  appear  flattish  and  dull.  If  the 
opening  for  the  eye  has  the  appearance  of  a  narrow 
slit  cut  bias,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  pig- eyed.  If,  in 
in  addition,  the  eyes  be  set  too  near  the  butt  of  the 
ear  and  too  near  together  by  reason  of  a  narrow  fore- 
head, the  horse  is  likely  to  be  an  untrustworthy 


240 


THE    HORSE 


"lunkhead."    Though    technically    sound,    horses    that 

have  the  appearance  of  the  photos,  Figs.  54  and  55,  are 

to  be  avoided,  as  it  would  be  safer  to 

walk  than  to  ride  behind  them. 

The  ears   and   their   position  on  the 

head  may  serve  to  assist  in  determining 

the  disposition  and  some  other  qualities. 

They  should   be    neither  too  close  nor 

too  far  apart,   neither   lopped   nor  too 

sharply  pointed  backward. 

A   disproportionately   large    head   is 

always  objectionable,  and  especially  so 

when  found  on  horses  designed  for  speed 
or  for  uses  where 
beauty  counts  for 
much.  The  head, 
as  seen  from  the 
front,  should  look 
broad  between  the  eyes,  rise 
rather  high  at  the  top  between 
the  ears,  and  have  the  appear- 
ance of  being,  cut  away  below  the 
eyes  and  along  the  nose;  that  is, 
the  head  should  be  free  from  flesh, 
and  loose,  thick  skin,  and  should 
have  a  fine -boned  framework. 
.Pl°- 5^-  c  A  fine  head  necessarily  implies 

rrom  a  photograph.    Such  ears 

would  condemn  any  horse.  a  flexible  ear;  bright,  alert  eyes; 
open,  thin-skinned  nostrils,  and  an  under  jaw  narrow 
where  connected  at  the  lower  end.  A  jaw  wide  at  the 
upper  end  gives  ample  room  for  the  windpipe. 


FIG.  54. 

From  a  photograph. 
This  shows  bad 
breeding. 


•AN  APPROPRIATE   NECK  FOR  A  TROTTER        241 


Next,  the  horse  should  be  viewed  frou  the  side. 
The  symmetry,  general  outlines,  length  of  limbs,  their 
setting  on,  their  curvatures,  length  and  appearance  of 
the  middle  and  the  harmony  or  lack  of  harmony  of 
each  part  with  the  other,  may  be  discovered  best  from 


\ 


FlG.  56.    Goldsmith  Maid. 

this  position.  From  the  front  and  side  views  correct 
general  impressions  may  be  secured.  These,  supple- 
mented by  a  critical  inspection  of  each  part,  should 
result  in  a  good  understanding  of  the  make-up  of  the 
horse,  his  value  and  adaptation  to  the  uses  contem- 
plated. 

If   the  neck   be  thin  vertically  at  the  setting  on  of 
the  head,  the  animal  should  be  a  pleasanter  and  safer 


242  THE    HORSE 

driver  than  if  the  neck  at  the  throat -latch  be  thick. 
The  head  should  not  be  set  on  to  the  neck  of  the 
animal  like  that  of  a  pig,  or  the  animal  will  be  likely 
to  "hog  the  bit,"  that  is,  take  the  bit  in  his  teeth, 
thrust  his  nose  straight  out  ahead,  and  be  as  unman  - 


FlG.  57.    From  a  photograph.    Beauty  of  form  counts  for  much. 
Who  could  admire  such  a  neck  and  head  ? 

ageable  and  as  contrary  as  the  animal  whose  neck  is 
of  the  same  style.  If  the  horse  is  designed  for  fast 
work,  his  neck  should  be  thin  and  rather  light,  with 
little  or  no  crest. 

Beauty  of   form  counts  for  so  much  that,  in  most 
cases,  the  ewe -neck  should  be  avoided.    For  most  pur- 


INSPECTING    THE  HORSE 


243 


poses,  the  neck  should  be  a  trifle  long,  but  all-embrac- 
ing where  it  joins  the  body.  It  should  be  set  on  the 
body  at  an  angle  of  about  thirty  degrees  above  the 
horizontal;  or,  as  the  horsemen  would  say,  on  the 
corner,  and  not  on  the  end  of  the  body.  The  all- 
embracing  neck,  well  set  on,  is  not  only  beautiful  but 
is  indicative  of  strength,  vigor  and  endurance.  The 
above  thought  should  be 
somewhat  modified  when  the 
pony  and  the  draft -horse 
are  considered.  The  word 
pony  usually  implies  a  short, 
compact,  small  animal,  and 
of  necessity  this  build  re- 
quires a  rather  plain,  short 
neck.  A  good  draft -horse 
may  be  said  to  be  an  en- 
larged,  modified  pony. 
Some  of  the  better  breeds  of 
draft -horses  show  unmistakable  signs  of  having  had 
some  admixture  (probably  mostly  through  their  dams) 
of  the  warm  blood  of  the  east,  which  blood  has  done 
much  to  give  symmetry  of  form  and  courage  to 
many  varieties  of  horses.  If  the  shoulders  of  the  draft- 
horse  be  too  oblique,  as  they  sometimes  are,  the  collar 
tends  to  rise  under  great  pressure,  and  this  may  result 
in  seriously  obstructing  free  respiration. 

The  hollow  or  protruding  breast,  the  bend  of  the 
back,  the  length  of  bottom  and  top  body  lines,  the 
length  and  slope  of  the  hind  quarters,  the  curby  leg, 
the  thorough -pin,  the  length  and  direction  of  the  legs 


FIG.  58.    Hassan. 
An  all-embracing  neck. 


244  THE    HORSE 

between  the  fetlock  joint  and  the  hoof,  can  all  be  seen 
easily  from  the  side  when  the  horse  is  viewed  by  the 
trained  eye.  If  in  this  general  inspection  the  horse  is 
not  condemned  for  the  purposes  desired,  a  more  critical 
inspection  should  next  be  made  of  the  legs  and  feet. 
By  bending  down  while  standing  in  front  of  the  horse, 
one  may  see  clearly  the  contour  of  the  inside  of  all 
the  legs.  Splints,  spavins,  wind -galls,  ring-  and  side- 
bones,  if  of  any  considerable  size,  are  immediately 
discovered.  In  this  position  comparison  is  easy,  since, 
if  one  limb  is  enlarged  at  any  point,  the  other  serves 
to  call  attention  to  it.  Only  in  rare  cases  is  more  than 
one  limb  affected  in  the  same  way  and  to  the  same 
extent.  Not  infrequently  a  blemish  may  be  incipient 
and  slight,  and  hence  likely  to  escape  detection;  there- 
fore the  limb  should  be  examined  by  passing  the  hands 
downward  over  two  legs  at  a  time,  pressing  hard  and 
keeping  the  hands  opposite  to  each  other.  A  blemish 
which  could  not  be  seen  may  be  discovered  by  the  sense 
of  touch.  A  horse  may  pass  all  of  these  examina- 
tions successfully  and  yet  be  unsound;  therefore,  if 
any  doubt  remains,  other  tests  should  be  made.  Stand- 
ing in  front  of  the  horse,  force  him  to  move  backward 
slowly  and  quietly.  If  he  picks  up  his  forefeet  and 
steps  backward  without  dragging  the  toe  of  the  foot, 
he  may  be  pronounced  sound  in  the  shoulders;  but  if 
the  foot,  instead  of  being  lifted  fairly  clear  of  the 
floor,  is  moved  back  with  a  dragging  motion,  the  horse 
is  not  normal.  (For  practice,  observe  a  horse  when 
backed  that  is  known  to  be  unsound.) 

If   not   fully   satisfied   with    the    inspection    already 


CONFORMATION  OF  FEET  245 

made,  force  the  horse  back  by  the  bits  and  then  turn 
him  to  the  right  or  left  quickly.  This  will  throw  extra 
weight  on  the  rear  legs,  and  the  twisting  motion  given 
to  them  by  the  turning  will  cause  the  animal  to  flinch 
in  case  of  an  incipient  spavin. 

The  feet  should  be  observed  with  the  greatest  care, 
keeping  in  mind  the  work  the  horse  will  be  called  on 
to  perform.  Feet  which  might  not  be  seriously  objec- 
tionable if  the  horse  is  to  be  used  at  slow  work  in  the 
soft  fields  might  be  totally  unsuited  to  fast  work  on 
pavements. 

Horses  which  have  a  strong  infusion  of  warm  blood 
frequently  have  naturally  erect  hoofs  and  rather  high 
heels.  If  this  feature  of  the  hoof  be  accentuated  by 
bad  shoeing  and  previous  fast  road  work,  the  foot  may 
be  in  danger  of  becoming  so  contracted  as  to  produce 
lameness,  although  the  foot  at  the  time  of  the  examin- 
ation appears  normal.  On  the  other  hand,  feet  may 
be  so  flat  and  open  at  the  heel  and  the  shell  of  the 
hoof  so  weak  as  to  endanger  the  usefulness  of  the 
horse,  and  yet  be  technically  sound.  This  class  of 
feet  is  most  often  found  on  horses  of  the  draft  type. 
There  is  a  happy  medium  between  feet  which  are  too 
narrow  at  the  heel  and  too  erect  and  those  which  are 
too  open  at  the  heel,  too  flat  and  deficient  in  bony 
structure.  The  open  flat  foot  often  becomes  injured 
by  the  frog  coming  into  too  violent  and  intimate  con- 
tact with  hard  earth  and  stones,  while  the  narrow- 
heeled  foot  is  more  likely  to  be  associated  with 
navicular  troubles. 


246  THE   HORSE 


THE   HORSE'S    TEETH 

So  far  nothing  has  been  said  about  determining 
the  age  of  horses.  A  discussion  of  this  subject  has 
been  purposely  deferred  until  the  limbs,  and  particu- 
larly the  feet,  have  been  examined.  If  these  indicate 
that,  in  general,  the  bony  structure  is  softish  and  of 
open  texture,  then  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  teeth 
are  of  the  same  general  character.  The  teeth  of 
horses  which  have  bones  of  somewhat  open  structure 
are  .  likely  to  indicate  that  they  are  slightly  older  than 
they  really  are;  while  the  teeth  of  horses  whose  bones, 
as  indicated  by  legs  and  hoofs,  are  of  fine  and  close 
texture  may  indicate  them  to  be  younger  than  they 
really  are.  All  this  applies  to  horses  which  have 
passed  their  eighth  year,  there  being  certain  charac- 
teristics and  changes  in  the  teeth  up  to  about  the 
eighth  year  by  which  the  age  within  a  few  months 
may  be  accurately  determined.  After  the  horse  has 
passed  the  eighth  year,  it  is  sometimes  difficult,  to 
determine  his  true  age  by  the  teeth.  Experts  may 
come  within  a  year  or  two  of  it  iiiitil  the  horse 
becomes  quite  aged,  when  he  may  be  said  to  be  six- 
teen past  or  eighteen  past,  and  the  like;  but  how 
much  past  may  not  certainly  be  known  from  the 
appearance  of  his  teeth.  The  texture  of  the  bone, 
the  breeding,  the  kind  of  food  the  horse  has  eaten, 
and  other  conditions,  have  more  or  less  influence  on 
the  teeth;  therefore  in  the  old  horse  the  teeth  serve 
to  indicate  age  only  in  a  general  way. 

The    horse    when    full-grown     has     forty    teeth  — 


DETERMINING   THE  AGE   OF   HORSES 


247 


incisors  f,  canines  (incipient  in  the  females),  f, 
molars  t,  f =1-0  =40.  As  the  incisor  teeth  only  are 
usually  inspected  when  the  age  of  the  horse  is  to  be  de- 
termined, they  alone  will  be  discussed  here.  The  colt 
is  provided,  before  the  end  of  the  first  year,  with 
twelve  temporary  incisor  or  milk-teeth.  The  differ- 
ence in  size  of  the  jaw-bone  of  the  foal  and  the 
horse  makes  a  change  from  milk  to  permanent  teeth 
necessary. 

Usually  from  one  to  two  weeks  after  the  foal  is 
born,  two  center  nippers  in  each  jaw  are  plainly  visi- 
ble and  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  59.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  these  teeth  are  long  from  right  to  left  and  have 
well-defined  cups,  or  "maiks,"  and  that  they  show  little 
or  no  wear.  These  char- 
acteristics should  be  noted 
carefully,  for  all  tempo- 
rary and  permanent  teeth 
when  new  have  pro- 
nounced distinguishing 
marks.  If  the  age  of  the 
colt  and  horse  is  to  be 
determined  with  any  de- 
gree of  accuracy,  not  only 
the  number  but  the  shape, 
character  and  various  changes,  as  the  teeth  progress  in 
age,  should  be  most  carefully  noted. 

At  from  four  to  six  weeks  of  age,  by  reason  of  use 
the  first  pairs  of  nippers  will  have  been  worn  down 
level,  that  is,  the  inside  of  the  teeth  will  show  level 
with  the  outside.  The  outside  edges  of  new  teeth  arc 


FIG.  59. 
From  one  to  two  weeks  old. 


248 


THE    HORSE 


always  more  forward  than  the  inside  edges.  It  should 
also  be  noted  that  these  new  teeth  are  fully  twice  as 
long  laterally  as  they  are  thick.  In  Fig.  60  are  shown 
the  lower  nippers  when  the  colt  is  from  four  to  six 
weeks  of  age.  The  central  pair  of  nippers  shows 
wear  and  the  lateral  pair  is  through,  but  the  inside 
and  the  posterior  corners  are  not  fully  up  and  show 
clearly  that  they  have  not  been  in  wear.  The  per- 
manent teeth  show  the 
same  characteristics 
when  new;  that  is,  the 
inside  and  the  posterior 
corners  do  not  come  up 
nor  come  in  wear  as 
soon  as  do  the  outside 
and  the  anterior  cor- 
ners. Note  lhat  the 
cups,  or  marks,  in  the 
central  pair  are  not 
quite  so  deep  nor  so 
long  as  they  were  when 
coming  into  wear,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59. 

When  the  colt  reaches  eight  to  ten  months  of  age, 
the  teeth  will  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  61.  The 
corner  nippers  are  up  but  not  fully  in  wear  on  the 
inside  and  the  posterior  corners.  The  posterior  cor- 
ners of  the  last  pair  of  nippers,  both  in  the  colt  and 
horse,  come  up  and  get  in  wear  more  slowly  than  do 
the  posterior  corners  of  lateral  nippers.  Note,  too, 
the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  cups  and  in 
the  shape  of  both  the  central  and  the  lateral  nippers. 


.    FIG.  60. 
Four  to  six  weeks  of  age. 


TEMPORARY   TEETH  DISCUSSED 


249 


It  would  be  well,  before  proceeding  further,  to  turn 
to  Figs.  74  and  78  and  notice  how  the  wear  from  year 
to  year  results  in   a   change  of  the  form  of  the  tooth 
and,  in  time,  in  ob- 
literating the   cups, 
or  marks. 

Note  also  the  dif- 
ference in  the  shape 
of  the  root  of  the 
permanent  tooth, 
Fig.  74,  and  the 
temporary  tooth  , 
Fig.  62.  The  root  of 
the  latter  is  much 
smaller  and  shorter 
than  the  former.  It 
also  has  a  distinct 
neck,  which,  however,  is  not  easily  discovered  at  first, 
as  the  gums  partially  cover  the  neck.  As  the  milk- 
tooth  approaches  three  years  of  age,  its 
roots  are  absorbed  rapidly  and  the  neck  is 
easily  discovered.  By  the  time  the  perma- 
nent tooth  is  ready  to  appear,  the  root  of 
the  temporary  tooth  is  nearly  absorbed  and 
little  remains  besides  that  portion  which  is 
above  the  neck.  The  temporary  teeth  not 
only  have  a  distinct  neck  but  are  smaller, 
smoother  and  lighter  colored  than  the 
permanent  teeth.  These  differences  may 
FIG.  62.  assist  the  beginner  in  distinguishing  the 

A  temporary,  or  .   .      _          „  .  .          ,    .        ,  .     . 

milk  tooth.        two  kinds  oi  teeth  and  in  determining  age. 


FIG 
Eight  to  ten  months  of  age. 


250 


THE    HORSE 


At  the  full  age  of  one  year,  the  marks  in  the 
central  nippers  will  be  much  shorter  and  fainter  than 
they  were  at  first.  The  lateral  nippers  will  show 
wear,  the  marks  will  be  longer  and  more  pronounced 
than  in  the  central  nippers,  but  they  will  be  shorter 
and  less  indented  than  in  the  younger  corner  teeth. 
All  of  the  nippers  will  be  up  and  the  corner  ones 
will  be  worn  level;  that  is,  their  posterior  corners 
will  be  fully  up  but  not  worn  quite  as  much  as  shown 
in  Fig.  63.  It  requires  some  care  to  determine  accu- 
rately the  age  of  the  colt  when  it  has  passed  its  first 
year  and  up  to  the  time  the  central  nippers  are 

replaced  by  per- 
manent ones.  It 
may  be  said , 
however,  that 
the  teeth  show 
wear  and  have 
something  of  the 
appearance  of  a 
six-year- old 
mouch  in  minia- 
ture; but,  with 
careful  inspec- 
tion,  m  a  n  3r 
minor  differ- 
ences can  be  observed.  The  teeth  are  shorter,  that 
is,  show  less  above  the  gums,  are  smaller  than  those 
of  the  six-year-old  animal  and  have  a  distinct  neck. 
They  are  lighter  colored  than  are  those  of  the  horse 
of  six  years  of  age.  If  the  teeth  of  the  two -year -old 


PIG.  63. 

The  lower  nippers  of  the  colt 
at  two  years  old. 


TWO  PERMANENT  TEETH  251 

colt  (Fig.  63)  be  compared  with  those  of  the  one 
nearly  a  year  old  (Fig.  61),  it  is  seen  that  the  cups, 
" marks,"  of  the  central  nippers  of  the  two-year-old 
have  nearly  or  quite  disappeared,  although  a  little 
discoloration  usually  remains  in  the  center  of  the 
teeth.  There  is  still  a  slight  mark  in  the  laterals, 
and  the  marks  in  the  corner  nippers  are  fairly  deep, 


FIG.  64.    Lower  nippers  at 
turee  years  of  age. 


It  may  be  said  that  they  are  much  deeper  in  the  corner 
teeth  when  the  colt  is  but  a  little  past  two  years  than 
they  are  when  the  colt  approaches  three  years  of  age 

When  the  colt  reaches  the  age  of  about  two  years, 
nine  months,  the  roots  of  the  central  nippers  are 
usually  nearly  absorbed  and  the  permanent  central 
nippers,  if  not  already  in  evidence,  will  soon  make 
their  appearance. 

When  the  colt  is  shedding  teeth    its  mouth  should 


252 


THE    HORSE 


be  watched  and,  if  the  milk-teeth  have  not  disappeared 
when  the  permanent  ones  have  pushed  through,  they 
should  be  removed,  as  they  only  serve  to  irritate  the 
gums  and  to  prevent  the  animal  from  consuming  the 


Fitt.  65.     Lower  nippers  at  four" 
years  of  age. 


usual  amount  of  feed.  A  little  extra  feed  and  care 
should  be  given  the  colt  while  it  is  substituting  per- 
manent for  temporary  nippers. 

At  about  two  years  and  nine  months  to  two  years 
and  eleven  months  the  center  permanent  nippers  will 
appear,  and  at  full  three  years  of  age  the  outer 
portion  of  the  teeth  and  sometimes  the  inner  also 
will  be  up  and  in  wear.  (Fig.  64.)  These  teeth  are 
larger  every  way  than  were  those  which  were  sup- 
planted. The  lateral  temporary  nippers  have  changed 


LATERAL    NIPPERS   JUST   THROUGH  253 

shape  and  have  lost  all  or  nearly  all  their  cups.  The 
slight  black  indentations  can  hardly  be  called  cups. 
The  cups  in  the  corner  teeth  are  greatly  reduced.  If 
the  colt  be  a  male,  small  tusks  are  likely  to  be  present 
or  in  process  of  coining  through  the  skin  of  the  jaw. 

At  about  three  years,  nine  months,  the  permanent 
lateral  nippers  appear.  At  four  years  of  age  they  are 
fully  up  and  in  wear  on  the  outside  and  sometimes 
on  the  inside.  (Fig.  65.)  The  central  nippers 
show  a  year's  wear,  and  the  cups  are  not  so  deep  as 
they  were  when  the  colt  was  three  years  of  age.  The 
cups,  or  marks,  have  nearly  or  quite  disappeared  from 
the  corner  (milk)  teeth,  often  nothing  but  a  slight 
dark  indentation  being  left.  The  tusks  have  enlarged, 
but  are  still  sharp  at  their  points  and  flattish  on  the 
inside.  A  side  view  of  a  four-year-old  mouth  is 
shown  in  Fig.  66.  The  crowns  of  the  two  temporary, 
or  milk-teeth,  one  upper  and  one 
lower,  come  together  closely  over 
their  entire  surface,  while  the 
two  permanent  teeth  do  not  yet 
meet  at  their  posterior  corners. 

When  the  colt  reaches  the  age 
of  four  years  and  nine  months, 
the  corner  nippers  make  their  ap- 
pearance. When  he  reaches  the 
full  age  of  five  years,  the  outer  FIG.  66.  side  view  of  the  teeth 

,.  i»i.i  xi.u  °f  a  four-year-old  horse. 

anterior   portions    of   these  teeth 

meet.  (See  side  view  of  a  five-year-old  mouth,  Fig.  68.) 
About  one  year  of  wear  must  take  place  before  the  corner 
teeth  are  worn  level  throughout  their  entire  surfaces,— 


254 


THE    HORSE 


the  corner  teeth  when  worn  off  level  are  one  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks  of  a  six-year-old  horse.  At  five  years 
the  central  nippers  have  had  two  years'  wear,  and  one 
more  will  virtually  destroy  the  cups.  They  are  also 
changing  slightly  in  shape;  they  have  become  rounder  on 
the  inside  and  slightly  shorter  in  their  longest  dimen- 


FIQ.  67.    Lower  nippers  of 
five-year-old  horse. 


sious.  The  lateral  nippers  have  also  changed.  They  have 
been  in  use  nearly  one  year.  In  about  two  years  more 
the  cups  will  have  nearly  disappeared.  The  corner  teeth 
are  longish  from  front  to  rear,  and  do  not  show  change 
of  form  or  indications  of  rounding  up  on  the  inside  as 
do  the  older  central  nippers.  The  cups  are  deep  and 
fresh,  the  corners  are  deficient,  and  in  every  way  they 
show  unmistakably  that  they  are  young  teeth  which 


CORNER  PERMANENT  TEETH  APPEAR 


255 


FIG.  68.     Side  view  of  the  teeth  of  a 
five-year-old  horse. 


have  been  subjected'  to  little  wear.  The  tusks  have 
enlarged,  but  are  not  yet  blunt,  and  prominently  rounded 
on  the  inside,  as  they  will  be  when  the  horse  approaches 
his  "teens."  The  per- 
manent teeth  are 
roughish,  that  is,  have 
slight  corrugations, 
while  the  temporary 
teeth  are  smooth  on 
the  outer  surfaces. 

The  colt  at  five 
has  a  "full"  mouth, 
and,  with  it,  his  name 
is  changed  to  that  of 
"horse."  The  female 
is  no  longer  called  a  filley,  but  a  mare,  and  the  "entire" 
horse  a  stallion. 

Sometimes  horses  have  shelly  teeth,  in  which  case 
the  inside  of  the  corner  teeth  may  not  be  up  and  in 
wear,  in  fact  may  never  come  up,  and  always  have 
the  appearance  of  a  corner  tooth  that  is  not  fully  up. 
At  rare  intervals  horses  have  what  is  known  as  "hawk- 
bill"  mouths,  that  is,  the  upper  incisors  extend  over 
the  under  ones;  in  which  case  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  age  after  the  horse  has  reached  his  sixth  year. 
However,  in  horses,  malformed  teeth  are  rare. 

Fig.  69  shows  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  when  the 
horse  reaches  his  sixth  year.  The  marks,  or  cups,  have 
disappeared,  or  nearly  so,  from  the  front  nippers,  have 
become  shallower  and  smaller  in  the  laterals,  and  the 
corner  teeth  are  up  on  the  inside  and  posterior  corners.. 


256 


THE    HORSE 


FIG.  69. 
Lower  nippers  of  a  six-year-old  horse. 


No  notches  will  yet  be  found  in  the  upper  corner 
incisors.  The  corner  teeth  are  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  laterals  or  the  front  teeth. 

At  six  years  of  age,   the  wearing  surfaces  of  these 

corner  teeth  come  to- 
gether throughout  their 
entire  length.  The  cen- 
tral teeth  have  made 
marked  changes  in 
shape, — they  are  becom- 
ing quite  roundish  on 
the  inside,  and  the  lat- 
erals are  also  somewhat 

FIG.  70.    Side  view  of  the  teeth  of  a 

six-year-old  horse.  modified,       W  ll  1 1  6      the 


SHAPE    OF    TEETH    CHANGED 


257 


corner  teeth  are  but  slightly  changed  in  general  con- 
tour. During  the  year  from  five  to  six,  the  tusks  have 
become  slightly  larger,  rounder  and  blunter.  If  the 
horse's  lips  be  parted,  and  the  mouth  viewed  from  the 
Dront,  the  teeth,  especially  the  central  ones,  will  appear 


FIG.  71.     Lower  nippers  of 
seven-year-old  horse. 


darker  colored  and  longer  than  they  did  a  year  or  two 
years  previous,  due  to  shrinking  or  receding  of  the 
gums.  Compare  Figs.  64,  65,  67. 

When  the  horse  reaches  seven  years  of  age,  the  cups 
have  not  only  disappeared  from  the  central  nippers, 
although  small,  darkish  spots  may  be  seen,  but  they 
have  nearly  or  quite  disappeared  from  the  laterals  as 
well.  The  corner  teeth  still  retain  the  cups,  though 


258 


THE    HORSE 


they  are  shallow,  which  is  evidence  that  the  teeth  have 
been  in  wear  two  j^ears,  and  that  in  another  year  the 
cups  will  have  nearly  or  quite  disappeared.  (Fig.  71.) 
It  will  be  noticed  that,  from  the  time  when  the  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw  are  well  up  and  in  wear  to  the  time 
the  cups  have  virtually  disappeared  in  the  lower  jaw, 
is  three  years.  It  is  well  to  keep  this  in  mind.  The 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  retain  their  cups  for  a  longer 
period. 

A  side  view  of  a  seven-year-old  mouth  shows  one 
marked     characteristic.    (Fig.  72.)    The    lower    corner 

teeth  seldom  extend 
as  far  backward  as  the 
upper  ones  do.  Qnly 
in  very  rare  cases  do 
all  of  the  four  corner 
teeth  meet  at  the 
corners  accurately;  in 
which  case  the  pos- 
terior corners  of  the 
upper  incisors  are  not 
worn  down  level  with 
the  rest  of  the  teeth. 
1  te  result  is,  the  face  of  the  tooth  in  wear  recedes, 
while  that  part  of  the  tooth  not  in  wear  projects  down- 
ward, forming  more  or  less  of  a  "notch."  Sometimes 
no  distinct  notch  is  apparent.  However,  by  close  inspec- 
tion, it  can  be  seen  that  the  face  of  the  upper  corner 
tooth,  where  it  meets  the  lower  one,  is  not  straight, 
as  it  was  when  the  horse  was  six  years  of  age,  but 
slightly  concave.  If  the  teeth  should  chance  to  meet 


Fia.  72.    Side  view  of  the  nippers  of  a 
seven-year-old  horse. 


MARKS  ALL    GONE 


259 


at  the  corners  more  accurately  than  shown  in  Fig.  72, 
then  no  notch  will  be  formed;  nevertheless  the  upper 
corner  tooth  will  be  slightly  concave,  though  not  so 
marked  as  shown  in  the  above  figure.  However,  it  is 
seldom  that  this  distinguishing  notch  is  not  forming  or 


FIG.  73. 

The  lower  incisor,  or  nipper  teeth  of 
an  eight-year-old  horse. 


formed  on  one  or  the  other  of  the  upper  corner  teeth 
at  the  age  of  seven  years. 

At  eight  years  of  age,  the  marks  or  cups  have 
disappeared  from  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw.  However, 
slight  dark -colored  indentations  are  still  present  in  the 
corner  teeth,  but  they  are  not  pronounced  enough  to 
be  called  cups.  (Fig.  73.)  The  shape  of  the  teeth  has 


260 


THE    HORSE 


radically  changed.  Turn  to  Fig.  74,  and  note  the  cross- 
section  of  a  front  incisor  tooth  when  it  has  been  in 
wear  five  years, —  that  is,  when  the  horse  is  eight  years 
old,  as  compared  with  the  teeth  of  a  five-year-old 
horse.  At  eight  years  of  age  there  are  indications  that 
the  bones  of  the  jaw  and  the  teeth  have  already  ceased 
to  enlarge.  In  some  cases  they  show  a  slight  shrinkage 

and  the  contour  of  the  lower 
jaw  has  become  less  rounded. 
Compare  Fig.  73  with  Fig. 
05.  Finding  that  the  cups 
have  nearly  or  quite  dis- 
appeared from  the  lower  jaw, 
we  proceed  to  examine  the 
upper  nippers.  It  is  not 
easy  to  get  a  clear  view  of 
the  upper  nipper  teeth  of  a 
restless  animal.  If  the  horse 
is  eight  years  old  the  cups 
will  still  be  present  in  the 
upper  center  nippers,  but 
they  will  not  be  deep.  If  the 
teeth  be  viewed  from  the 
side,  Fig.  75,  they  will  appear  somewhat  long,  and  will 
meet  at  a  sharper  angle  than  they  did  when  the  horse 
was  but  four  years  old.  As  the  years  go  by,  the  angle 
of  the  teeth  increases.  At  four  years  of  age,  the  upper 
and  lower  teeth  meet  nearly  vertically  with  each  other, 
at  twenty  at  an  angle  of  nearly  forty -five  degrees. 
The  tusks  are  becoming  constantly  larger,  rounder  and 
blunter  as  the  years  advance.  Compare  Fig.  75  with 


4  years 


9  years 


14  years 


20  years 


FIG.  74.  Cross  section  of  an  incisor 
tooth,  showing  how  the  shape 
changes  with  advancing  years. 


NOTCH  PRESENT,  TUSKS  LARGE 


261 


Fig.  66,  and  the  notches  in  the  corner  teeth   have  be- 
come pronounced. 

At  nine  years  of  age,  the  cups  will  have  disap- 
peared from  the  upper  center  incisors,  and  will  be 
shallow  in  the  laterals  but  fairly  deep  in  the  corner 
teeth.  The  cups  do  not  disappear  at  such  regular 
intervals  in  the  upper  teeth  as  they  do  in  the  lower 
ones.  Therefore,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  the 
age  of  a  horse  within  a  year  or  two,  after  he  has 
passed  his  eighth  year.  However,  the  character,  shape 
and  angle  of  meet- 
ing of  the  incisor 
teeth  may  all  be 
used  to  assist  the 
judgment  in  de- 
termining age.  As 
has  been  formerly 
stated,  horses  hav- 
ing dense,  hard 
bones  and  hoofs 
are  likely  to  be 
rated  younger 
than  they  are, 
after  eight  years  of  age,  when  judged  by  the  teeth 
alone;  while  horses  of  softer  bony  structure  are  likely 
to  be  judged  older  than  they  are. 

At  ten  years,  the  cups  have  disappeared  from  the 
upper  lateral  teeth,  the  notches  in  the  corner  upper 
incisors  have  become  enlarged,  and  all  the  signs  of 
advancing  age,  as  described  above,  are  becoming 
marked. 


FIG.  75.   The  incisor  teeth  of  an  eight-year-old  horso 


262  THE    HORSE 

Usually,  when  the  horse  reaches  his  eleventh  year, 
all  the  cups  have  disappeared;  though  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  shallow  cups  in  the  upper  corner 
teeth  of  smallish  dense -boned  horses  up  to  thirteen  or 
even  fourteen  years  of  age.  However,  the  shape  and 
the  angle  of  the  incisors  prevent  a  close  judge  from 
being  much  deceived.  After  the  horse  has  passed  his 
twelfth  year,  the  matter  of  two  or  three  years  counts 
for  but  little;  since  all  horses  have  then  passed  their 
prime,  and,  while  they  may,  for  certain  purposes,  be 
as  efficient  as  they  were  when  young,  the  time  is  fast 
approaching  when  the  capital  invested  in  the  horse 
will  be  lost.  The  value  of  a  horse  is  modified  by  the 
number  of  years  which  is  likely  to  elapse  before  his 
value  reaches  the  zero  point.  For  instance,  a  ten- 
year-old  horse  may  be,  and  usually  is,  able  to  per- 
form more  service  than  a  five -year -old;  but  the  five- 
year-old  may  be  able  to  perform  twelve  years  of 
efficient  service,  while,  if  a  horse  be  ten  years  old, 
there  would  be  but  seven  years  of  service  before  the 
capital  stock  invested  would  be  sunk.  Then,  too, 
old  horses  are  likely  to  be  more  sluggish  than  young 
ones.  All  things  considered,  it  is  seldom  wise  to  pur- 
chase an  old  horse  unless  the  price  is  low;  in  which 
case  it  matters  little  whether  the  horse  is  fourteen, 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years  of  age.  One's  judgment  of 
the  value  of  a  horse  at  these  ages  should  be  founded 
on  general  appearances  and  on  activity  shown,  rather 
than  on  age,  which  cannot  be  accurately  determined 
by  an  examination  of  the  teeth.  One  may  distinguish 
between  a  horse  moderately  old  and  one  that  is  very 


TEETH  NEARLY   TRIANGULAR 


263 


old;   but  after  the  horse  reaches  his  twelfth  year  the 
teeth  do  not  accurately  indicate  the  age. 

Figs.  76  and  77  graphically  illustrate  the  appear- 
ance of  the  teeth  of  an  old  horse.  The  incisor  teeth 
have  become  nearly  triangular  and  they  show  long 


FIG.  76.    The  lower  incisor  teeth  of  an  old  horse. 
Note  the  shape  and  length  of  them. 

wear  The  tusks  are  large,  blunt  and  round;  the 
notches  in  the  corner  teeth,  long  and  deep;  the  front 
ends  of  the  teeth  have  been  broken  off,  and  they 
meet  at  an  acute  angle.  They  may  have  grown  out  so 
long  as  to  prevent  the  double  teeth  from  meeting;  in 
which  case  the  horse  will  spit  out  his  food  after  he 
has  extracted  some  of  its  juices  by  imperfect  mastica 


264 


THE    HOUSE 


tion.  If  the  incisor  teeth  be  rasped  off  on  their 
posterior  edges,  the  grinders  will  then  meet  and  lite 
will  be  somewhat  prolonged.  It  is  humane  either  to 
do  this  or  to  destroy  the  animal,  rather  than  to  let  it 
die  by  slow  starvation. 

Having  given  somewhat  lengthy  and  detailed 
instructions  for  determining  the  age  of  horses  by  an 
inspection  of  their  teeth,  it  will  assist  materially  in 

understanding  the 
instructions  if  the 
teeth  be  studied  in 
a  different  way. 
Fig.  78  shows  an 
entire  permanent 
incisor  tooth.  It 
will  be  observed  in 
the  left-hand  cut, 
that  the  face  of  the 
tooth  has  not  yet 
been  in  wear  and 
that  the  inside  of  it 
is  not  fully  up.  The  cup  is  about  three -eighths  of  an 
inch  deep.  It  is  of  such  a  curvature  that  when  the 
opposite  tooth  meets  it  they  will  come  together  much 
as  the  jaws  of  an  ordinary  pair  of  pincers  do,  and  not 
like  the  jaws  of  a  pair  of  tongs. 

In  the  second  cut  from  the  left  is  shown  the  same 
tooth,  the  cross  line  indicating  how  much  of  the  tooth 
has  been  worn  away  by  one  year's  wear.  Nearly  or 
quite  one -third  and  the  broadest  part  of  the  cup  is 
gone.  In  the  third  cut  from  the  left,  the  cross  line 


FlQ.  77.    A  side  view  from  life  of  the  nippers  of 
an  old  timer. 


YEARLY  WEAR   OF  TEETH 


265 


shows  how  much  of  the  tooth  will  be  worn  away  when  it 
has  been  in  wear  two  years.  The  fourth  cut  from  the 
left  shows  a  front  incisor  which  came  up  at  three  years 
of  age  and  has  been  in  wear  three  years.  The  cup  has 
nearly  or  quite  disappeared,  which  occurs  at  six  years 
of  age.  When  the  horse  reaches  nine  years  of  age,  the 
cut  shows  that  about  three -eighths  of  an  inch  of  the 


At  3  years.   4  years.    5  years.    6  years.    9  years.   20  years. 


FIG.  78.  Shows  the  wear  of  an  incisor  tooth  and  why  the  cups,  or  marks,  dis- 
appear as  age  advances.  The  lower  nippers  wear  away  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  each  year.  The  upper  incisors  wear  away  more  slowly. 

tooth  has  been  worn  away  below  the  cup.  At  twenty 
years,  the  tooth  shows  much  wear.  The  direction  of 
wear,  as  shown  by  the  cross  line,  has  changed.  Note 
the  angle  and  how  different  it  is  from  the  visible  angle 
of  the  teeth  of  a  young  horse. 

Turn  back  to  Fig.  74,  as  it  will  assist  the  eye  and 
the  judgment  in  distinguishing  between  a  tooth  which 
has  just  come  in  wear  and  one  that  has  been  in  wear 


266  THE    HORSJE 

four,  eight,  fourteen  and  twenty  years,  respectively,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  It  also  shows  clearly  the 
marked  changes  which  occur  in  the  shape  of  the  teeth 
when  viewed  in  cross  section.  At  from  eleven  to  thirteen 
years,  as  has  been  stated,  all  the  cups  disappear  from 
the  upper  incisors,  after  which  there  is  difficulty  in 
accurately  determining  the  age.  However,  if  the  shape 
of  the  teeth  is  observed  critically  (Fig.  74),  it  will  not  be 
at  all  difficult  for  a  novice  to  distinguish  between  a 
horse  just  past  his  prime,  an  old  horse  and  a  very  old 
horse. 


NOTE— Throughout  this  chapter  the  terms  "temporary  teeth" 
and  "milk  teeth,"  also  the  words  "incisors"  and  "nipper-"  have 
been  used  synonomously.  This  is  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
these  terms  are  so  used  by  many  good  horsemen. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

BREEDING    HORSES 

THE  breeders  of  horses  may  be  divided  roughly  into 
two  classes  —  the  professional  and  wealthy  amateur, 
and  the  commoner.  The  former  usually  has  means 
sufficient  to  secure  as  foundation  stock  expensive  and 
superior  animals.  He  may  expect  profits,  but  does  not 
always  realize  them.  The  business  is  not  infrequently 
carried  on  for  the  enjoyment  which  is  secured  from 
rearing,  handling  and  driving  fine  horses.  While  the 
undertaking  may  yield  no  profit  to  the  proprietor,  it 
seldom  fails  to  be  of  great  value  to  the  horse  interests. 
The  commoner  learns  much  from  observing  the  suc- 
cesses and  failures  of  the  professional  and  the  amateur 
in  their  expensive  efforts  to  make  advancement.  Then, 
too,  the  commoner  may  reap  great  benefit  from  having 
near  at  hand  tested  stallions,  the  services  of  which 
may  usually  be  secured  at  reasonable  terms.  Although 
the  commoner  has  to  follow  a  long  way  behind  the 
professional,  he  should  not,  by  reason  of  prejudice, 
fail  to  make  use  of  the  many  valuable  facts  secured  by 
the  liberal  expenditures  of  the  professional.  It  would 
be  gratifying  if  the  wealthy  breeders  would  take  more 
interest  in  improving  the  horses  in  the  hands  of  the 
farmers  and  less  in  conspicuous  display. 

However,    it   is   the   commoner   we   are   seeking   to 

(267) 


268  THE   HORSE 

benefit;  since  the  wealthy  breeder  usually  has  the 
lesson  of  breeding  fairly  well  learned,  and,  in  case  he 
has  not,  is  amply  able  to  employ  experienced  and 
trained  foremen.  The  wealthy  breeder  often  goes  so 
fast  and  so  far  that  the  commoner  loses  contact  and 
hesitates  to  follow. 

The  farmer  carrying  on  mixed  husbandry  has  con- 
stant use  for  horses  during  a  part  of  the  year.  For 
about  six  months  they  are  often  overwirked;  during 
the  balance  of  the  year  the  cost  of  maintenance 
exceeds  the  value  of  their  services.  To  minimize  this 
expense,  the  grain  ration  is  much  reduced  or  entirely 
dispensed  with.  The  coarse  and  innutritions  roughage, 
which  cannot  be  readily  disposed  of  in  the  market,  is 
used  to  furnish  a  ration  which  sometimes  falls  short 
of  the  maintenance  standard.  In  the  spring,  the 
horses  are  soft  and  inefficient,  and  when  put  to  severe 
work  are  often  permanently  injured.  Usually  the  ani- 
mals are  too  light  for  the  service  required;  in  rare 
cases,  too  heavy.  Many  are  "weedy"  and  weak, 
when  the  highest  endurance  should  be  possessed  to 
carry  the  farm -horse  through  the  rush  of  opring  seed- 
ing and  harvest.  In  the  following  chapter  something 
is  said  as  to  adapting  the  breed  to  the  work  to  be 
performed  and  as  to  the  details  of  raising  winter 
colts.  Here,  it  is  proposed  to  speak  to  that  large 
number  of  farmers  who  pay  little  or  no  attention  to 
breeding  horses  and  give  but  scant  care  to  the 
horses  already  possessed.  When  one  is  worn  out 
another  is  purchased,  or  the  attempt  is  made  to  farm 
with  too  few  work -animals.  All  this  results  in  slovenly 


BOFS    WITHOUT   COLTS    UNHAPPY  269 

and  often  unprofitable  husbandry.  The  stocks  and  bonds 
of  a  railway  that  owns  too  few,  inefficient  and  poorly 
cared -for  locomotives  never  sell  at  par  or  earn  satis- 
factory dividends. 

It  will  not  require  a  large  fund  of  knowledge  or 
long  experience  to  fit  even  a  man  who  has  little  taste 
for  horses  to  intelligently  select  a  good  brood-mare, 
and  the  experience  of  his  neighbors  will  indicate  the 
stallion  to  be  used  which  will  most,  likely  beget  off- 
spring suited  to  the  soil  and  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed. Once  the  work  of  breeding  is  entered  upon, 
even  the  novice  will  soon  learn  enough  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  breeding  to  produce  animals  which 
are  likely  to  be  far  superior  to  those  purchased  at 
random  under  the  stress  of  necessity  and  paid  for  by 
a  promise  to  be  fulfilled  in  the  future. 

Farmers'  boys  without  colts  are  as  unhappy  as 
married  people  without  children.  Our  experience  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that,  after  keeping  an  account  of 
the  value  of  the  food  consumed  by  colts,  there  is  a 
profit  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent  in  raising  colts 
up  to  three  years  of  age,  provided  they  are  worth  one 
hundred  dollars  at  that  time,  and  allowing  that  the 
value  of  the  manure  produced  equals  the  trouble  of 
caring  for  them.1  In  other  words,  in  the  middle  and 
eastern  states,  horse -raising  at  present  is  likely  to 
produce  double  the  profit  that  can  be  realized  in  most 
other  branches  of  mixed  agriculture;  and  this,  too, 
by  the  man  who  is  unskilled,  and  whose  chief  energies 

1  See  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  for  quantity  and  value  of  manure 
produced  by  horses. 


270  THE   HORSE 

may  be  devoted  to  the  production  of  grain  or  hay  or 
dairy  products. 

To  secure  one  hundred  dollars,  more  than  10,000 
pounds  of  milk  must  ordinarily  be  produced.  Perhaps 
I  am  spending  too  much  time  in  trying  to  energize 
those  who  stand  lowest  in  the  art  of  horse-breeding, 
and  who  find  it  easier  to  give  promissory  notes  for 
an  unacclimated  horse  of  comparatively  little  value 
for  a  year,  and  which  may  prove  to  be  vicious  or 
unsound,  rather  than  to  "bother  with  a  colt."  But 
I  have  a  great  interest  in,  and  really  affection 
for  this  man,  who  had  no  opportunity  in  youth  to 
acquire  even  a  smattering  of  the  principles  which 
underlie  his  profession, — who  has  worked  so  hard 
and  long,  as  boy  and  man,  that  he  has  become  un- 
responsive, soured  and  often  egotistical.  Under  the 
circumstances,  it  is  difficult  for  him  to  receive  and 
adopt  new  methods  which  require  additional  knowl- 
edge and  foresight.  He  is  often  so  cramped  in  means 
that  he  hesitates  to  undertake  anything  which  does 
not  give  promise  of  quick  returns,  although  the 
undertaking  may  offer  satisfactory  rewards.  These 
are  the  men  who  set  no  orchards,  drain  no  lands, 
repair  no  buildings.  They  are  to  be  pitied,  not 
blamed.  It  has  seemed  to  me  that  this  class  of  farm- 
ers should  find  a  friend  and  an  adviser  somewhere. 
Such  cases  cannot  be  dismissed  by  simply  saying, 
"Why  don't  you  do  better?"  Why  not  raise  cows 
that  will  bring  fifty  dollars  each,  instead  of  twenty- 
five  dollars?  Why  not  raise  horses  at  forty  dollars 
profit  each,  instead  of  raising  wheat  and  oats  at  a 


WORK  FOR  HORSES  AND  BOYS        271 

positive  loss  ?  Or  why  riot  raise  hothouse  lambs  and 
get  ten  dollars  per  head  for  them  at  eight  weeks  of 
age  ?  But  how  can  they  do  better  until  they  have 
more  knowledge  and  skill? 

I  have  suggested  that  raising  one  or  more  colts 
yearly  would  be  practicable;  since  horses  must  be 
maintained  to  do  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  since 
men  and  teams,  in  many  cases,  spend  four  to  five 
months  of  the  year  in  comparative  idleness.  Often  a 
fairly  good  brood-mare  is  already  at  hand;  and  what 
better  use  can  she  be  put  to  during  the  winter  than 
nursing  a  colt,  and  what  better  and  pleasanter  work 
for  the  boys  than  caring  for  and  "breaking"  colts? 

One  illustration  of  the  results  which  followed 
acceptance  of  advice  similar  to  the  above  may  be 
given.  A  young  farmer  living  from  "hand-to-mouth" 
secured  a  mare  which  had  many  of  the  characteristics 
of  motherhood.  She  was  bred  four  successive  years  to 
a  smallish,  symmetrical,  dark -colored  Percheron  stal- 
lion. The  result  was  four  colts.  Being  large,  sym- 
metrical and  strong,  they  were  used  at  light  work  as 
soon  as  they  had  passed  the  age  of  two  years.  One 
pair  was  sold  when  the  colts  were  nearly  four  and 
five  years  of  age  for  three  hundred  dollars  cash  at  the 
farm.  The  next  day  after  the  sale  the  two  younger 
colts  were  harnessed,  and  in  a  week  they  were  doing 
the  work  of  the  pair  sold.  Here,  with  no  great  effort 
or  expense,  nearly  six  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  horses 
had  been  produced  in  five  years,  and  the  net  profits 
realized  were  more  than  the  net  profits  on  all  other 
products  of  the  little  farm  for  that  period.  This  man 


272  THE    HORSE 

dropped  his  hoe  and  leaped  into  the  saddle,  and  ever 
after  was  a  more  intelligent  and  a  broader  man. 

But  the  profits  are  by  no  means  the  chief  consider- 
ation in  such  an  enterprise.  There  are  boys  on  the 
farm,  or  should  be,  who  have  paramount  claims.  John 
will  not  remain  contented  between  the  plow  handles 
many  years  if  he  has  no  colt  upon  which  to  try  his 
courage  and  skill.  Unless  some  means  are  provided  for 
recreation  and  an  outlet  for  his  restless  energy,  and 
opportunity  for  gratifying  his  desire  to  exhibit  his 
courage  and  skill,  do  not  be  surprised  if  some  day  you 
find  the  plow  standing  idle  in  the  furrow  and  the  boy 
standing  on  the  front  platform  of  an  electric  car, 
uniformed  and  numbered.  These  unknown  and  unap- 
preciated farm  lads,  with  their  nascent  pride  and 
repressed  nervous  energy,  are  humiliated,  shamed, 
when  seen  in  public  with  that  rough,  old,  overworked 
farm -horse  hitched  to  the  carriage.  Nearly  every  farm 
boy  now  has  a  carriage  —  and  a  best  girl.  Deprive 
him  of  a  good  young  horse, —  one  which  has  spring 
and  mettle,  one  which  it  takes  both  hands  to  manage, 
—  and  he  will  take  to  the  bicycle  and  the  town  and 
leave  the  farm,  carriage  and  the  girl  behind, —  and 
leaving  the  girl  behind  is  the  worst  of  all.  When 
his  hands  have  become  soft  and  white  in  town,  he 
may  be  ashamed  of  the  virtuous,  natural,  nut-brown 
girl  in  the  farm  home.  If  he  could  remain  on  the 
farm  a  little  longer,  his  better  and  riper  judgment 
would  enable  him  to  discriminate  between  solid  and 
enduring,  and  showy  characteristics  which  fade  when 
tested  under  the  strenuous  conditions  which  sooner  or 


OBJECTIVE   POINT  BOYS   AND    GIRLS  273 

later  always  come,  both  in  city  and  country  life.  The 
strength,  courage  and  patience  which  come  from 
rural  life  will  then  be  worth  more  than  the  lily-white 
complexion. 

The  wood,  with  its  multitude  of  wild  animals  to 
hunt  and  trap,  is  no  more;  the  evening  social  function 
at  schoolhouse  and  farmhouse  has  passed  into  dim 
remembrance;  even  the  inspiring  winter  revivals  in 
the  country  church  have  gone  out  of  fashion.  If  he 
has  no  colt  to  drive,  there  seems  no  place  nor  time 
left  for  the  farmer's  boy  to  secure  relaxation  and 
recreation  but  to  find  it  by  scouring  the  country  on 
the  Sabbath  days  by  means  of  back-breaking,  bowel- 
curling  bicycles.  The  boy  does  secure  a  change  by  his 
Sunday  wanderings;  but  he  is  likely  to  secure  much 
else  in  country  inns,  fruit  plantations,  and  associa- 
tion, in  too  many  instances,  with  those  whose  charac- 
ters are  the  reverse  of  the  girl's  he  has  left  at  home. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  most  casual  reader  that. my 
objective  point  is  the  boys  and  girls  on  the  farm, 
while  the  horse  is  treated  as  a  means  to  an  end.  Only 
yesterday  I  saw  this  boy  and  girl,  as  I  stopped  at  their 
home  to  get  a  drink  of  milk.  Large -headed,  muscular, 
clear  of  eye,  alert  and  hanging  on  every  word  from 
the  outside  world.  Already  a  little  ashamed  of  their 
work -day  clothes,  and  already,  for  want  of  oppor- 
tunity and  experience,  imbibing  something  of  the 
false  notion  that  fine  clothes  and  soft  hands  are  sure 
indexes  of  respectability,  virtue  and  learning.  The 
three  things  most  prized  by  the  children  in  this  far- 
away, serni- mountain  home,  were  the  colts,  the  flowers 


274  THE    HORSE 

and  the  chickens.  I  stopped  long  enough  to  look  them 
all  over,  and  received  instruction. 

The  old  custom  of  presenting  each  son  with  a  colt 
or  young  horse  on  arriving  at  his  majority  was  most 
excellent,  and  might  well  be  revived.  If  father  will 
not  present  you  with  a  colt,  raise  one  for  yourself; 
if  he  confiscates  it,  raise  two  more,  but  raise  good 
ones.  A  poor  horse  may  be  made  to  increase  your 
efficiency  in  production  five -fold,  but  a  good  one  not 
only  gives  pleasure  but  may  be  made  to  increase  your 
productive  power  more  than  ten-fiold.  Then,  too,  a 
good  horse  may  be  one  of  the  truest,  most  helpful  and 
appreciative  friends  you  will  have  in  your  boyhood. 
No  boy  can  be  said  to  be  ignorant  who  has  learned 
how  to  breed,  rear,  feed  and  drive  a  good  horse. 

My  young  lads  and  lasses,  I  have  laid  aside  for  a 
time  the  discussion  of  scientific  and  practical  horse- 
breeding  for  the  pleasure  of  having  a  familiar  chat 
with  you;  and  if  you  believe  the  half  of  what  I  have 
said  as  to  the  beneficial  influences,  pleasures  and 
profits  which  may  be  derived  from  a  love  for  and  the 
breeding  of  the  horse,  you  will  read  the  next  chapter, 
which  gives  directions  somewhat  in  detail,  as  well  as 
some  of  the  principles  which  should  be  observed,  if 
the  breeding  and  rearing  of  horses  is  to  be  added  to 
the  general  farm  operations  already  established. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

EDUCATION    AND    CARE    OF   ROADSTERS    AND 
OTHER    LIGHT    HORSES 

NEARLY  all  the  ailments  of  horses  are  due  not  so 
much  to  bad  breeding  as  to  faulty  training,  ignorant, 
brutal  driving,  overwork,  carelessness  in  feeding  and 
watering,  and  thoughtlessness  and  ignorance  with 
regard  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  work  which  should 
be  demanded  of  a  horse  under  given  circumstances. 
This  being  the  case,  the  subject  of  driving,  feeding 
and  management  is  set  forth  in  this  and  the  follow- 
ing chapter  with  painstaking  minuteness. 

EDUCATION 

The  colt,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  taught,  while 
yet  with  its  dam,  to  obey  simple  commands  and  to 
acquire  confidence  in  its  master  and  in  the  myriad  of 
frightful  objects  of  the  new  world  in  which  it  first 
found  itself  a  timid,  ignorant  stranger.  It  has  had  a 
happy,  unrestrained  life  so  far,  and  has  learned  much 
of  men  and  things  during  its  three  years  of  growing, 
joyous,  bounding  life.  Its  freedom  has  given  it  power 
and  courage,  — both  of  which  we  shall  discover  when 
an  attempt  is  made  to  get  dominion  over  it.  Without 
this  bounding  energy  and  courage,  it  would  be  a  dis- 
appointment—  simply  an  ass. 

(275) 


276  THE    HORSE 

The  modern  colt  is  easily  educated,  for,  through 
many  generations  of  domestication,  it  has  inherited 
the  capacity  to  acquire  an  education  readily.  On  the 
plains,  it  was  once  necessary  to  "break"  and  tame 
colts  as  we  do  lions,  by  harsh  methods,  and  in  a 
few  cases  it  is  still  so. 

With  rare  exceptions,  the  colt  on  the  farm  is  made 
usable  if,  for  a  few  hours  each  day  for  a  week,  he  is 
subjected  to  the  restraints  of  a  bitting  harness  in  the 
open  paddock.  (Fig.  79.)  The  check-  and  side-rein 
should  be  left  slack  at  first.  Gradually,  from  day  to 
day,  the  reins  may  be  shortened;  provided,  however, 
they  are  never  made  so  short  as  to  place  the  head  in 
an  uncomfortable  position  or  draw  the  bit  so  tightly 
into  the  corners  of  his  mouth  as  to  make  them  sore. 
After  the  bitting,  the  colt  may  wear  the  harness  and 
be  driven  with  lines  in  the  open  field,  without  being 
attached  to  a  vehicle.  The  next  step  is  to  drive  him 
for  a  few  hours  each  day,  by  the  side  of  a  good -sized, 
staid,  mature  horse  attached  to  a  farm -wagon,  which 
should  be  furnished  with  a  brake,  first  in  the  open 
field,  until  he  learns  what  is  wanted  of  him.  The  colt 
is  now  ready  for  light  work.  The  education  should  be 
continuous,  not  spasmodic,  and  the  after  work  should 
be  continuous  but  light.  The  way  not  to  train  a  colt 
is  to  give  him  one  lesson  a  week  or  a  month,  which 
he  forgets  before  he  receives  his  second  lesson,  and 
then  the  first  lesson  has  to  be  relearned.  As  the  colt 
is  put  to  light  work,  the  grain  ration  should  be 
increased,  governed,  however,  by  the  exhaustiveness  of 
the  service.  If  the  work  is  light  and  the  grain  ration 


SPIRIT  NOT  TO  BE  BROKEN 


277 


FIG.  79.    Receiving  their  first  lesson. 

liberal,  the  colt  is  likely  to  attempt  to  play  in  the 
harness,  get  into  trouble  and  become  frightened.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  wise  to  keep  the  colt  in  too  high  spirits 
until  he  acquires  staid  horse -sense.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  spirit  should  not  be  broken,  or  he  may  be  a 
dullard  all  the  rest  of  his  life. 

All   of    this-  preliminary   education    is   not   always 


278 


THE    HORSE 


FIG.  80.    Ready  for  the  second  lesson. 

necessary.  Colts  of  the  draft -breeds  are  not  so  sensi- 
tive as  are  those  of  the  warm-blooded  breeds.  Since 
the  colt  receives  his  education  largely  through  the 
sense  of  touch,  and  since  this  sense  varies  widely  in 
individuals  and  breeds,  no  hard-and-fast  rule  can  be 
given  for  the  training  of  colts.  Only  occasionally  is 
it  difficult  to  get  the  colt  to  receive  his  lessons  kindly. 


WRONG    SIDE,    SEE   FIG.  82 


279 


When  these  exceptional  cases  are  met  with,  I  know 
of  no  better  way  to  get  dominion  over  him  than  to 
throw  the  colt,  "Rarry  him."  The  bitting  rig  serves 
well  for  this  purpose.  Horse  ready,  Fig.  80.  The 
right  fore  foot  is  strapped  up,  and  a  strap  is  also 


FIG.  81.    The  work  half  done. 

attached  to  the  left  fore  foot  below  the  fetlock. 
Standing  on  the  left  side,  the  colt's  neck  is  turned 
sharply  to  the  right  side  and  he  is  made  to  take  a 
step  with  his  free  foot.  As  he  raises  it,  the  operator 
brings  it  sharply  up  to  the  body.  This  results  in 
bringing  the  colt  to  his  knees.  Fig.  81.  If  the  neck 
is  kept  well  bent,  as  it  should  be,  the  colt  can  make 
but  feeble  efforts  to  rise,  although  he  may  do  some 


280 


THE    HOKSE 


plunging.  The  operator  remains  close  to  the  colt's 
side,  with  one  elbow  over  his  back.  This  is  a  most 
humiliating  and  uncomfortable  position  for  the  colt. 
He  soon  yields  and  lies  down,  usually  on  the  left  side. 
This  brings  his  feet  away  from  the  operator.  If  the 


FlG.  82.     Brains  versus  brute  force. 

front  legs  are  kept  up  to  the  body  and  the  neck 
slightly  bent  to  the  right,  the  animal  cannot  rise. 
(Fig.  82.)  Now  almost  anything,  such  as  opening  and 
closing  an  umbrella,  jingling  bells,  etc.,  may  be  done. 
The  colt  quickly  learns  that  these  do  riot  harm  him. 
If  he  be  laid  down  several  times  and  afterwards  be 
driven  with  lines,  with  one  leg  tied  up  and  the  other 
ready  to  be  taken  up  at  the  slightest  indication  of 


"CONDITION"   GOVERNED   BY   USE  281 

self-assertion,  much  will  have  been  accomplished  to 
convince  a  vicious  colt  that  the  intellect  of  man  is 
superior  to  the  intellect  of  a  colt,  even  though  asso- 
ciated with  powerful  muscles. 

FEEDING 

Driving- horses,  especially  those  used  at  fast  work, 
should  be  fed  with  great  care.  They  should  have 
relatively  a  greater  proportion  of  concentrates  and  a 
less  proportion  of  roughage  than  those  used  for  heavy, 
slow  work.  Horses  designed  for  fast  work  should  not 
have  their  bowels  distended  with  coarse  foods.  Some 
roughage  is  always  necessary  to  float  and  divide  the 
concentrates  in  the  stomach,  otherwise  the  grain  and 
meal  become  somewhat  compacted,  and  then  are  not 
easily  attacked  by  the  digestive  juices.  There  is  always 
some  danger  of  feeding  so  liberally  as  to  produce  over- 
fatness.  Fat  horses,  to  the  untrained  eye,  appear  more 
beautiful  than  lean  ones,  and  hence  the  danger  of 
sacrificing  highest  usefulness  for  beauty.  Any  un- 
necessary weight  on  the  legs  reduces  to  some  extent 
their  efficiency,  and  also  tends  to  make  the  horse  slug- 
gish. The  family  horse  maybe  kept  much  plumper  than 
the  roadster,  for  he  is  not  driven  so  fast  and  far,  and, 
by  reason  of  the  extra  flesh,  in  time  he  becomes  safer 
and  less  nervous.  If  the  food  of  the  horse  thin  in 
flesh  be  increased,  his  spirit  is  likely  to  increase  for  a 
time,  and  a  horse  considered  safe  when  thin  may 
become  so  energetic  and  frisky  when  putting  on  flesh 
as  to  injure  his  reliability  as  a  family  horse.  Having 


282  THE    HORSE 

once  arrived  at  the  maximum  of  flesh,  he  will  soon 
tend  to  become  as  trusty  as  at  first.  Having  been  fat 
for  some  time,  the  tendency  is  for  him  to  grow 
sluggish. 

FOODS 

Roughage  and  Concentrates. —  Timothy  and  wild 
prairie  hays  form  excellent  roughage  for  feeding  road- 
sters. While  the  roadster  may  be  fed  hay  from  grasses 
mixed  with  clover,  and  even  bright  clover  alone  with- 
out injury  if  the  quantity  is  sharply  restricted,  yet 
there  is  always  some  danger  of  injuring  the  wind  of 
the  horse  by  so  doing.  Timothy  and  prairie  hays  are 
less  palatable,  and  more  carbonaceous  than  hays  mixed 
with  clover,  which  are  more  relished;  and  hence  the 
tendency  is  for  the  horse  to  eat  too  much  of  the  latter 
unless  the  feeder  limits  the  ration.  Mixed  and  clover 
hays  are  admirably  adapted  for  feeding  colts  and  other 
young  stock.  Such  hay  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about 
1:5.8  (one  to  five  and  eight- tenths.  See  Appendix 
III),  while  timothy  hay  has  a  ratio  of  about  1:16. 
The  chief  reasons  for  not  feeding  clover  hay  to  driving 
horses  are  two:  It  is  always  more  or  less  dusty,  and 
it  is  too  proteinaceous,  and  hence  tends  to  loosen  the 
bowels  when  the  animal  is  put  at  hard,  fast  work. 
However,  if  clover  hay  be  mixed  with  bright  straw, 
and  the  mass  be  dampened,  a  satisfactory  roughage 
ration  will  be  secured  for  all  but  fast  drivers. 

Oats  and  corn  are  the  two  standard  concentrates. 
The  former  is  best  adapted  to  driving -horses,  while 
the  latter  mixed,  or  even  unmixed  with  oats,  serves 


REGULARITY  IN  FEEDING  283 

well  for  horses  which  are  kept  daily  at  work  which 
calls  for  large  expenditures  of  energy,  if  the  roughage 
is  not  also  rich  in  carbohydrates.  Bran  may  also  be 
used  but  to  a  limited  extent;  for  it  is  not  sufficiently 
concentrated  to  furnish  nutrients  to  satisfactorily  sustain 
either  driving-  or  work-horses  when  put  to  fatiguing 
work.  If  fed  liberally,  it  tends  to  keep  the  bowels  too 
lax.  When  scalded  it  is  not  infrequently  fed  to  relieve 
constipation  in  horses.  About  four  quarts  of  bran  may 
be  thoroughly  moistened  with  boiling  water,  covered 
up,  and  left  until  the  next  feeding  time,  when  it 
should  be  diluted  and  fed  warm.  A  gill  of  linseed 
meal  per  day,  mixed  with  other  concentrates,  serves 
to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  condition,  and  to  brighten 
and  soften  the  hair.  Barley  and  rye  are  also  used  as 
concentrates  to  a  limited  extent.  Both  are  much  im- 
proved if  ground  and  mixed  with  other  concentrates. 
Wheat  is  sometimes  used  for  feeding  horses,  but  it  is 
the  least  satisfactory  of  all  the  foods  mentioned. 
Before  it  is  fed,  it  should  be  mixed  with  other  grains 
and  ground  into  meal.  Cottonseed  meal,  a  valuable 
concentrate  for  feeding  cattle  and  sheep,  is  not  relished 
by  horses. 

In  closing  this  discussion  on  feeds  and  feeding,  it 
may  be  said  that  regularity  in  feeding  and  watering, 
judgment  in  withholding  a  part  of,  or  adding  to  the 
ration,  and  in  the  kinds  of  food  to  be  used  under  any 
particular  condition,  all  play  important  parts.  With 
mows  and  bins  full  of  good  foods, 'some  horsemen  are 
unable  to  keep  their  horses  up  to  a  high  state  of 
efficiency.  They  appear  to  acquire  the  habit  of  caring 


284  THE    HOUSE 

for  their  horses  in  the  wrong  way  or  at  the  wrong 
time,  or  both.  The  very  breath  of  such  an  attendant 
seems  to  be  poison  to  the  horse.  Horses  should  be 
used  but  moderately  for  a  short  time  after  they  have 
partaken  of  a  full  meal.  Horses  kept  in  cold  stables 
should  receive  wider  rations  than  those  kept  in  warm 
stables.  "The  skill  of  the  groom  is  half  the  ration." 
For  a  more  extended  discussion  of  this  subject  see 
"Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by  Director  William  Arnon 
Henry,  Madison,  Wis. 

HARNESS 

Care  should  be  taken  to  fit  and  adjust  the  harness 
to  the  horse.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  young 
horse  when  he  is  first  put  at  work.  His  shoulders 
and  mouth,  the  places  likely  to  first  show  abrasion, 
are  tender.  Then,  too,  if  he  be  somewhat  fleshy  when 
put  to  severe  work,  the  collar,  which  was  none  too 
large  at  first,  becomes  too  large  for  the  neck  after  a 
few  weeks. 

In  this  chapter,  the  care,  management,  etc.,  of 
moderate -sized  horses  put  to  light  work  is  treated; 
in  Chapter  XTX,  the  driving  and  care  of  draft-  and 
plow -horses  will  receive  attention. 

After  the  collar,  the  bridle  is  of  next  importance. 
First,  the  length  of  the  headstall  should  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  bring  the  bit  in  mild  contact  with  the 
bars  of  the  mouth,  so  that  there  may  be  quick 
response  to  the  slightest  pressure  of  the  driving  reins. 
If  the  headstall  of  the  bridle  is  too  short,  the  bars 


THE    O  VER  -  DBA  W   CHECK  285 

of  the  mouth  soon  become  sore  and  finally  unrespon- 
sive; if  too  long,  the  horse  becomes  careless  of  the 
driver's  wishes. 

A  good -sized  straight  bit,  covered  with  leather,  if 
the  mouth  is  tender,  cannot  be  improved  upon  except 
in  a  few  special  cases  when  a  more  severe  one  may  be 
required.  "Pullers"  are  frequently  cured  of  their 
disagreeable  habit  when  the  change  is  made  from  a 
severe  bit  to  a  straight,  mild  one.  With  the  severe 
bit,  the  horse  was  in  constant  pain  and  hence  ner- 
vous and  excited.  Being  excited,  his  only  desire  was 
to  go.  With  a  bit  that  gives  pain  and  a  driver  a  little 
afraid  of  his  horse,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  horse 
pulls.  The  horse,  at  one  end  of  the  lines,  soon  dis- 
covers the  qualities  of  the  man  at  the  other  end. 

The  crupper  becomes  necessary  if  no  breeching  is 
used  on  the  harness.  The  modern  fad  of  driving 
without  breeching  is  to  be  condemned.  If  the  horse 
is  reined  high,  the  crupper  is  almost  indispensable. 
But  horses  should  not  be  reined  high.  If  the  crupper 
is  used,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  it  fit  and  to  keep 
it  clean,  lest  it  abraid  the  tail  and  produce  a  disagree- 
able, if  not  a  vicious  horse.  Last  of  all  comes  the 
check-rein,  with  or  without  the  over-draw  attach- 
ment. Two  radically  different  practices  prevail  in  the 
use  of  the  check-rein.  Some  drivers  over-use  it; 
some  do  not  use  it  at  all.  Is  not  a  happy  medium 
between  these  two  practices  best*?  The  over-draw 
rein,  if  worn  tight,  is  nothing  less  than  cruel.  (Fig. 
83.)  It  makes  the  horse  hold  his  head,  not  only  in  an 
uncomfortable,  but  in  an  unsightly  position,  If  no 


286  THE    HORSE 

check -rein  is  used,  most  horses  become  slovenly  and 
careless  in  their  habits,  and,  when  not  moving,  the 
temptation  to  eat  grass  or  earth  becomes  too  great 
to  be  resisted.  The  feet,  too,  may  get  entangled  in 
the  lines  and  the  collar  fall  half-way  down  the  neck. 


Fia.  83.    A  rein  cruelly  used.     (Also  see  page  298.) 

It  is  the  abuse  of  the  check -rein,  not  the  use  of  it, 
which  is  to  be  deplored.  Horses  should  always  be 
checked  up  mildly,  for  it  is  the  business  of  the  horse 
when  in  harness  to  attend  strictly  to  his  duties.  With- 
out a  check-rein  he  seldom  does.  I  imagine  that  a 
check -rein  on  some  people  who  walk  with  heads  bent 
low  and  rounded  shoulders,  or  sit  on  their  backs 
instead  of  their  buttocks,  would  be  beneficial.  Hap- 
pily, many  of  our  young  ladies  are  learning  to  walk 


BLINDERS- USE  AND  ABUSE  287 

erect  and  keep  their  heads  perpendicular  to  their 
spinal  column.  Perhaps  the  high,  stiff  collars  have 
had  something  to  do  with  this  improvement. 

Shall,  or  shall  not,  blinders  be  used?  Again  we 
have  a  wide  diversity  of  opinion.  Here,  too,  as  with 
the  check -rein,  extremes  should  be  avoided.  A  horse 
should  be  directed  by  contact  with  his  nerves  of  sen- 
sation and  by  spoken  words.  He  has  no  business  to 
be  looking  backwards  for  orders.  If  he  does,  he  soon 
imagines  that  he  is  "bossing"  the  job  himself.  Strict 
and  prompt  obedience  is  best  secured  when  the  highest 
intelligence  directs.  A  small  projection,  not  a  blind, 
attached  to  the  headstall  of  the  bridle,  does  not  keep 
the  eye  hot  nor  obstruct  the  side  or  front  vision,  while 
it  does  prevent  the  horse  from  looking  backward, 
thereby  conserving  his  vision  and  attention  for  the 
objects  in  his  pathway.  The  breast  collar  is  admissable 
when  the  load  is  light. 

DRIVING 

The  art  of  driving  a  horse  or  a  locomotive  must  be 
learned  largely  by  practice,  as  both  are  complex 
machines.  The  former  differs  from  the  latter  in  that 
he  is  a  highly  organized  living  thing  and  therefore 
may  attempt  at  any  time  to  act  on  volition,  while  the 
locomotive  must  be  acted  upon.  While* the  horse  may 
and  should,  within  narrow  limitations,  act  without 
directions,  he  is  largely  like  a  machine  under  the  hand 
of  a  master.  His  mental  powers  should  be  trained  to 
willing  obedience  rather  than  toward  originality.  Since 


288  THE    HORSE 

a  well-bred  horse  has  a  will  of  his  own,  it  will  require 
more  skill  to  drive  him  efficiently  and  safely  than  to 
drive  the  locomotive. 

Horses  are  usually  badly  driven  and  waste  much 
of  their  power  and  flesh  to  little  or  no  purpose.  Per- 
haps some  suggestions  as  to  driving  may  result  in 
easing  the  burdens  of  the  horse  and  in  making  him 
more  efficient.  Constant  nagging  with  words  or  whip 
soon  ruins  courage  and  spirit.  The  driver  is  almost 
certain  to  get  into  the  habit  of  nagging  when  the 
horse  is  continuously  required  to  do  more  than  he 
should.  Constant  repetition  of  word  and  whip,  it  is 
true,  is  the  only  way 'to  get  more  service  out  of  an 
animal  than  it  should  perform.  Even  a  horse  of  high 
courage  will  at  last  fail  to  resent  the  cruel  treatment 
of  its  driver.  He  soou  learns  that  "It  is  hard  to  kick 
against  the  pricks." 

In  ancient  times  oxen  were  driven  by  means  of  a 
long  stick,  or  goad,  one  end  of  which  was  provided  with 
a  piece  of  sharpened  metal.  The  animals  soon  learned 
that,  if  they  kicked  against  the  pricks  it  not  only 
increased  their  punishment  but  resulted  in  being 
pricked  again  for  kicking.  Some  modern  drivers  act 
on  the  principle  of  ancient  ox-drivers. 

If  the  horse's  spirit  has  not  been  broken  and  his 
powers  have  been  sustained  and  he  has  not  been 
overworked,  and  yet  he  is  not  responsive  and  obedient, 
what  is  to  be  done  I  There  is  no  way  but  to  energize 
him  now  and  then  with  a  sharp  switch.  If  this  hurts 
your  feelings  more  than  it  does  the  horse,  get  clear  of 
him  and  breed  oqe  that  has  more  courage  and  spirit, 


PUNISHMENT  FOR  DISOBEDIENCE  289 

Horses  become  discouraged  and  disobedient  when 
they  are  punished  for  they  know  not  what  or  are  given 
double  commands,  as,  for  instance,  "Whoa,  back." 
They  get  disgusted, —  I  suppose  a  horse  can  get  dis- 
gusted,—  and  finally  mad  when  required  to  back  a  load 
several  times,  when  if  the  driver  had  cramped  or 
directed  the  front  part  of  the  vehicle  at  the  right  angle, 
it  would  have  been  in  the  position  desired  by  a  single 
effort. 

Horses,  like  men,  should  receive  punishment  for  dis- 
obedience; but,  unlike  men,  they  should  receive  theirs 
here,  and  when  the  offense  is  committed,  or  they  may 
escape.  There  is  often  great  cruelty  shown  to  horses, 
which  is  justly  condemned.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
much  "namby  pamby"  literature  on  the  subject  of  kind- 
ness to  horses.  One  of  the  things  desired  in  horses  is 
strict  and  prompt  obedience;  failing  to  obtain  this  by 
kind  means,  intelligently  applied,  then  punishment  for 
disobedience  should  fall  quickly.  With  brutal  drivers, 
the  punishment  for  disobedience  or  non- performance  of 
duty  is  always  excessive.  Excessive  punishment  tends 
to  produce  viciousness  and  lack  of  confidence,  and, 
above  all,  it  is  cruel.  A  single  stroke  with  a  light, 
stinging  whip  will  do  more  to  prevent  future  disobedi- 
ence than  swear-words  and  many  blows  with  whip  and 
club. 

If  the  driver  is  careless  and  lazy,  so  will  the  horse 
soon  become.  The  light  touch  on  the  reins  and  the  firm, 
kind,  cheery  voice  do  much  to  inspire  the  horse  with 
courage  and  obedience.  Some  men,  even  young  men, 
are  so  constituted  that  they  should  never  be  set  at 


290  THE    HORSE 

driving  horses.  These  I  do  not  expect  to  reach  and  ben- 
efit. But,  discarding  this  class  and  do  the  best  we  may 
in  educating  the  youths  of  the  land,  there  always  will 
be  the  unenergized  and  unskilful  horseman.  Unless  one 
is  proud,  not  vain,  of  his  horse,  he  can  not  acquire  the 
nice  judgment  which  tells  him  when  to  drive  fast,  when 
slow,  and  when  the  horse  has  done  enough.  Listen 
to  the  horse  — 

Up  hill  bear  me ; 

Down  hill  spare  me; 

On  the  level  spare  me  not, 

But  cool  me  when  I'm  hot. 

Proud  enough  to  drive  so  that  the  wheels  of  the  vehicle 
will  be  kept  in  the  beaten  track  and  directed  away  from 
stones  and  holes, — which  can  be  accomplished  only  by 
watchfulness  and  by  being  constantly  in  touch,  through 
the  reins,  with  the  horse.  The  horse  at  farm- work 
requires  comparatively  little  direction;  and  but  little 
skill,  if  applied  at  the  right  moment,  is  needed  to 
direct  his  energies  along  the  most  efficient  lines,  when 
at  slow  work. 

WATERING 

Horses  that  are  used  for  driving  and  for  light 
work  are  usually  in  higher  physical  condition,  not 
necessarily  fatter,  than  farm-  and  draft -horses.  Since 
their  hours  of  labor  are  usually  not  so  many  nor  their 
work  so  exhausting,  they  do  not  require  so  much  water 
as  farm -horses,  but  they  are  likely  to  be  injured  by 
drinking  large  amounts  of  water  at  one  time.  Horses 
which  are  driven  long  distances  may  perspire  freely  for 


WATERING  291 

eight  to  ten  hours  per  day,  and  they  are  apt  to  come  to 
the  stable  at  night  not  only  depleted  of  vitality  but 
over -thirsty  as  well;  in  which  case  great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  restricting  the  amount  of  water  until  the 
animal  has  recovered  some  of  its  normal  vitality.  Under 
the  conditions  described,  the  horse  should  first  of  all  be 
given  a  small  amount  of  thin  oatmeal  gruel.  If  this 
be  fed  at  from  90°  to  100°  Fahr.,  so  much  the  better. 
It  is  not  so  much  the  amount  of  water  nor  its  tempera- 
ture as  the  amount  of  vigor  which  the  horse  possesses 
when  he  is  watered  that  governs  the  result. 

The  horse,  like  the  man,  has  far  less  resisting  power 
on  some  days  than  on  others, — that  is,  he  is  not  always 
at  his  best.  The  careless  driver  fails  to  discover  this, 
and,  when  the  horse  shows  weariness,  it  is  accounted  to 
him  as  laziness  and  the  whip  is  used  to  stimulate  his 
nagging  energies.  When  he  arrives  at  the  stable,  he 
may  be  in  just  the  right  condition  to  be  injured  by  even 
a  single  pail  of  cold  water.  Horses  which  are  fed  all 
they  will  eat  of  hay  that  is  dirty  or  that  contains  a  large 
per  cent  of  clover  desire  much  water.  In  time  they  get 
into  the  habit  of  eating  and  drinking  too  much.  This 
results  in  large  and  unsightly  abdomens,  difficult 
breathing,  and  general  sluggishness,  and  is  likely  to 
result  in  the  horse's  having  the  "heaves."  The  animal 
becomes  inefficient,  not  because  of  its  breeding,  but 
through  the  ignorance  or  carelessness  of  the  driver. 
The  horse  that  is  driven  four  to  six  hours  continuously 
should  be  watered  midway  on  his  journey;  though  he 
be  quite  warm,  no  harm  will  result  therefrom.  How- 
ever, he  should  be  driven  somewhat  slowly  for  the  first 


292  THE    HORSE 

few  minutes  after  he  has  drunk.  No  horse  should  be 
called  on  for  his  highest  effort  immediately  after  eating 
or  drinking  heartily.  It  will  do  no  harm  to  again  em- 
phasize the  need  of  furnishing  the  horse  a  full  and 
frequent  supply  of  water,  if  he  is  healthy,  and  it  is 
desired  to  keep  him  so. 

GROOMING 

The  grooming  of  the  horse,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, becomes  an  important  factor  in  efficiency  of 
performance.  Those  called  on  for  rapid  work  for  short 
periods  can  hardly  be  groomed  too  much.  Relatively, 
too  much  attention  is  usually  given  to  the  body  and 
too  little  to  the  legs.  The  groom  has  pride  in  the 
"shine;"  the  driver  has  more  interest  in  having  the 
legs  hard  and  limber.  The  legs  of  a  horse  should 
always  receive  first  and  largest  attention:  often  they 
receive  the  last  and  least.  Much  of  the  body -grooming 
of  the  horse  may  be  dispensed  with  if  blankets  are 
judiciously  used. 

The  proper  use  of  blankets  requires  some  skill.  If 
the  horse  is  allowed  to  stand  on  the  street  in  cold  or 
windy  weather,  he  should  be  covered  with  a  heavy, 
large  blanket  immediately  upon  stopping,  although  he 
may  be  sweating.  But  if  the  horse  arrives  at  the 
stable  sweaty,  where  he  is  measurably  protected,  he 
should  not  be  blanketed  until  he  has  ceased  to  steam. 
For,  if  he  be  covered  at  once,  little  opportunity  is  given 
for  him  to  dry  off,  and  the  blanket  will  become  damp 
and  the  hair  may  remain  so  all  night.  True,  this  diffi- 


BLANKETS  293 

culty  may  be  partly  obviated  by  substituting  a  dry 
blanket  one  or  two  hours  later.  If  the  blanket  is  not 
used  until  the  steam  and  surface  heat  have  measurably 
subsided, —  which  it  usually  does  in  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes, —  the  hair  will  be  dry  and  smooth  the 
following:  morning,  when  the  scurff  may  be  removed 
easily  by  the  use  of  a  stiff  brush.  The  use  of  a  stable 
blanket,  as  well  as  one  for  the  street,  cannot  be  recom- 
mended too  highly.  The  former  should  be  of  light 
material,  and  not  so  large  as  the  latter.  A  blanket  of 
some  loosely  woven  cheap  material  may  be  used  from 
June  to  September,  and  the  ordinary  light  winter 
stable  blanket  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  Stable  blankets 
may  be  dispensed  with  in  hot  weather  if  flies  are 
excluded  by  screens  or  by  darkening  the  stables  by  the 
use  of  curtains;  but  they  should  be  used  in  the  fall,  as 
soon  as  the  nights  become  cool.  Such  early  use  will 
arrest,  too,  in  a  marked  degree,  the  growth  of  hair  both 
in  length  and  density.  The  coat  of  hair  being  kept 
short  and  comparatively  thin,  the  horse  does  not  swreat 
so  profusely,  when  driven,  as  he  would  if  the  stable 
blanket  is  not  used  until  the  beginning  of  winter. 
The  early  use  of  stable  blankets  usually  obviates  the 
need  of  clipping  the  horse.  However,  some  horses 
have  such  dense  and  long  coats  of  hair  that  health 
and  ease  of  grooming  require  that  the  clipping  be 
performed,  but  such  woolly  horses  are  rare.  In  any 
case,  the  clipping  should  be  done  before  midwinter, 
not  in  March,  the  most  trying  month  in  the  year  for 
a  driving-horse.  For  some  time  after  the  horse  is 
clipped,  both  stable  and  street  blanket  should  be 


294  THE   HORSE 

doubled,  or  those  of  greater  weight  and  warmth,  secured 
around  the  abdomen  with  safety  pins,  should  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  light  ones.  In  warm  weather  the  horse 
enjoys  a  sponge  bath,  and  the  skin  is  cleaned  and 
hair  benefited  thereby.  Much  space  has  been  given  to 
the  use  of  blankets,  with  the  view  of  keeping  the 
horse  comfortable  and  the  skin  and  hair  pliable  and 
presentable,  with  the  minimum  of  body  grooming,  an 
excess  of  which  tends  to  keep  the  skin  too  sensitive 
for  our  erratic  climate. 

The  care  of  the  legs  is  really  of  more  importance 
than  the  care  of  the  body.  They  are  subjected  to 
severe  concussion  and  strain;  often  covered  with  mud 
or  ice,  or  both,  or  soaked  with  water  the  entire  work 
day.  It  is  little  wonder,  then,  that  they  become 
unsound,  sometimes  useless.  Added  to  mud  and  ice 
in  the  winter,  is  the  ever-present  dust  in  the  summer, 
which  fills  the  hair  and  pores  of  the  legs  fai  more 
than  of  the  body.  All  these  necessarily  adverse  con- 
ditions tend  to  injure  the  legs  in  time;  hence  they 
should  be  cared  for  promptly  and  with  skill  and 
judgment. 

When  the  horse  comes  to  the  stable  with  muddy 
legs,  they  should  be  roughly  cleaned  by  using  a  half- 
worn  common  broom.  In  an  hour,  or  when  the  legs 
have  dried  off,  they  should  be  rubbed  and  brushed 
until  they  are  quite  dry  and  clean.  Then,  too,  such 
rubbing  will  restore  circulation,  and  the  following 
morning  the  horse  will  be  supple  and  ready  for  work, 
even  if  his  legs  receive  but  little  attention  just  before 
going  to  his  task.  In  other  words,  fifteen  minutes'  time 


GROOMING  295 

spent  in  cleaning  and  rubbing  the  legs  at  night  is 
more  efficient  in  promoting  sound,  strong  legs  than  a 
half-hour's  time  spent  on  them  in  the  morning.  It 
all  comes  to  this, —  horses  are  usually  kept  at  work  so 
late  in  the  day  that  time  is  not  allowed  for  properly 
cleaning  and  caring  for  them  after  their  day's  work 
is  done.  That  which  should  be  done  promptly  at  night 
is  put  off  until  the  morning,  when  the  desire  is  to  get 
to  work  early;  thus  cutting  short  the  time  which 
should  be  given  to  caring  for  the  legs,  and  finally 
they  are  not  cared  for  at  all.  For  what  is  the  use  in 
cleaning  them  at  six -thirty,  when  at  seven  they  will 
be  as  muddy  as  ever?  When  the  weather  is  warm,  the 
legs  should  be  washed  and  afterwards  rubbed  dry. 
Nothing  contributes  more  toward  producing  diseased 
limbs  than  allowing  the  horse  to  remain  all  night 
with  damp  legs  covered  with  mud,  especially  in  damp 
or  cold  stables.  Depletion  of  flesh  produced  by  neglect 
can  easily  be  remedied,  but  injury  to  the  legs  from 
the  same  cause  is  often  irreparable.  Wherever  wheat 
or  rye  straw  is  used  for  bedding,  the  very  best  possible 
material  will  be  at  hand  for  cleaning  and  invigorating 
the  legs.  A  willing  groom  with  a  wisp  of  clean  straw 
in  each  hand  are  all  the  appliances  necessary  for  put- 
ting the  legs  in  splendid  condition.  The  old  fash- 
ioned iron  currycomb  is  not  well  adapted  to  cleaning 
the  horse's  body  much  less  to  cleaning  his  legs. 

Horses  sleep  but  little  —  from  three  to  four  hours 
out  of  the  twenty -four;  hence  the  more  need  of 
making  them  comfortable  at  night.  Narrow  stalls, 
insufficient  bedding  and  stiffened  joints  on  rising,  all 


296  THE   HORSE 

discourage  the  horse  from  lying  down  as  much  as  he 
should,  or  from  lying  down  at  all.  All  these  condi- 
tions should  be  remedied,  because  such  change  would 
be  both  profitable  and  humane.  Stalls  should  be  wide 
and  well  bedded.  However,  ample  space  and  a  com- 
fortable bed  may  not  only  induce  the  horse  to  rest  by 
lying  down,  but  to  roll  also,  even  to  roll  over,  in 
which  case  he  is  likely  to  get  cast,  that  is,  get  his 
feet  higher  than  his  back  and  against  the  side  of  the 
stall.  If  so  he  suffers,  may  even  die,  if  not  promptly 
relieved. 

To  prevent  the  horse  from  rolling  over,  fasten  a 
small  pulley  to  the  ceiling  over  the  horse's  head,  and 
a  second  one  nearly  over  the  side  of  the  stall.  Attach 
a  ring  to  the  top  of  the  halter,  to  which  fasten  a 
small  rope,  pass  the  rope  through  both  pulleys,  and 
fasten  the  end  to  a  weight  of  one  or  two  pounds. 
The  length  of  the  rope  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
cause  the  weight  to  strike  the  pulley  when  the  nose 
of  the  horse  is  from  six  to  eight  inches  from  the 
floor  when  he  is  lying  down.  A  horse  cannot  roll  if 
he  is  prevented  from  getting  his  head  dat  on  the 
floor  or  ground, 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

"HANDS"    IN  DRIVING 
By  F.  S.  PEER 

ATTENTION  has  already  been  called  to  the  necessity 
of  preserving  the  sensitiveness  of  a  colt's  mouth,  when 
educating  him,  by  the  use  of  a  bit  covered  with  leather; 
when  he  is  having  his  first  lessons  with  the  bit  and 
dumm- jockey,  such  lessons  are  commonly  known  as 
"mouthing"  and  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  When 
we  consider  that  our  every  wish  or  command  is  to  be 
communicated  to  a  horse  along  the  lines  to  a  bit  in  his 
mouth  and  further, — when  we  take  into  account  that 
mere  strength  with  us  is  as  nothing  compared  with  the 
strength  of  a  horse, —  the  necessity  of  preserving  a 
horse's  mouth  as  sensitive  as  possible  is  apparent. 

Americans,  as  a  rule,  are  fairly  good  at  anything 
they  undertake,  but  in  the  question  of  "mouthing" 
colts,  and  "hands"  in  driving,  they  are  about  as  bad  as 
possible.  We  may  be  pardoned  for  dwelling  a  little  on 
this  point,  for  the  want  of  "good  hands"  is  one  of  the 
most  universal  and  most  glaring  defects  in  American 
horsemanship. 

By  good  hands  in  driving  is  meant  that  delicacy  of 
touch  that  never  pulls  at  a  horse's  mouth  more  than  is 
necessary,  and  never,  on  any  account,  when  it  is  not 
necessary.  The  reason  why  Americans  have  such  bad 

(297) 


298  THE    HORSE 

hands  is  because  they  do  not  hold  the  reins  properly 
when  driving.  It  is  a  pity  that,  when  we  inherited  from 
our  English,  Scotch  and  Irish  ancestors  a  love  for 
horses,  we  left  behind  us  their  perfect  hands  for  driving 
them.  Everywhere  in.  Great  Britain  one  sees  horses 
being  driven  with  perfect  hands, —  farm  boys,  lads  on 
delivery  wagons,  cab -drivers,  teamsters,  everybody; 
while  in  America,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  coachmen 
in  cities  and  an  occasional  gentleman -owner  who  has 
been  properly  instructed,  we  are  about  the  worst  lot  of 
reinsmen  to  be  found  in  any  civilized  country.  I  am 
well  aware  that  this  will  possibly  be  challenged  or 
looked  upon  as  a  very  severe  criticism.  The  trouble  is, 
our  training  has  been  wrong  from  the  start,  and  as  we 
are,  generally  speaking,  all  wrong,  we  do  not  know  how 
bad  we  are. 

The  American  style  of  holding  the  reins  is  distinctly 
our  own;  we  have  neither  inherited  it  nor  borrowed  it 
from  any  other  nation.  How,  then,  did  we  come  to  pos- 
sess it?  By  copying  after  the  style  of  jockies,  sitting  in 
a  sulky  driving  on  a  race-track.  Nor  is  "hands"  the 
only  thing  we  have  copied  from  the  trotting  track  to  no 
purpose.  I  refer  to  the  overdraw  check.  This  instru- 
ment of  torture,  as  well  as  the  method  of  holding  the 
reins,  has  a  purpose  on  the  track,  but  off  of  it  they  are 
alike  abominable. 

The  sole  purpose  of  the  overdraw  is  to  extend  the 
nose  of  a  trotter  so  as  to  give  him  a  straighter  air  pas- 
sage from  nose  to  lungs,  which,  in  races  where  the 
fraction  of  a  second  wins,  is  undoubtedly  useful,  as  the 
volume  of  air  to  be  pumped  in  and  out  under  such  terri- 


HOLDING    THE  REINS  299 

ble  pressure  needs  the  greatest  possible  freedom.  Thus 
the  overdraw  has  its  legitimate  use.  To  use  it  for  any 
other  purpose  is  to  abuse  it.  A  trotting-horse  can  stand 
it  during  a  race  lasting  a  few  minutes;  but,  when  a 
poor  dumb  brute  is  made  to  carry  his  head  out  of  a 
natural  position  for  hours,  it  becomes  a  torture.  So 
universal  has  the  fashion  for  overdraws  become  that, 
unless  it  is  especially  ordered,  you  can  hardly  find  any- 
thing else  on  a  ready-made  single  harness.  It  is,  as 
above  stated,  from  this  same  source,  and  with  no  more 
reason,  that  Americans  have  copied  the  prevailing 
style  in  this  country  of  holding  the  reins  when  driving. 
The  proper  way  of  holding  the  reins  when  driving  is 
to  take  them  in  the  left  hand;  the  nigh,  or  left  rein 
coming  into  the  hand  over  the  forefinger,  the  off,  or 
right  rein  corning  into  the  hand  between  the  middle  and 
ring  finger.  The  left  hand  holds  the  reins;  the  driving 
or  guiding  is  to  be  done  by  the  right  hand,  which  carries 
the  whip  and  manipulates  the  reins.  The  arm  of  the 
driver  from  shoulder  to  elbow  hangs  naturally,  the  fore- 
arm nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  same;  the  hands 
nearly  meet  in  front  of  the  body  in  a  perfectly  natural 
position,  thumbs  uppermost.  This  position  of  the  hands 
and  reins  gives  to  the  driver  the  best  possible  control  of 
the  lines,  at  the  same  time  enabling  him  to  keep  at  all 
times  a  light  touch  on  the  horse's  mouth,  which  is  not 
only  the  proper  way  but  the  way  all  horses  prefer  to  be 
driven.  A  horse  properly  bitted  or  mouthed  as  a  colt, 
and  the  sensitiveness  of  the  mouth  preserved,  the 
slightest  touch  of  either  rein  with  the  pressure  of  a 
finger  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  quiet  him. 


300  THIS    HORSE 

The  American,  or  jockey  style  of  holding  the  reins  is 
not  only  bad  in  form  but  ruinous  to  a  horse's  mouth; 
because,  with  the  arms  extended  and  a  grasp  of  each 
line  in  separate  hands,  the  weight  of  the  arms  and  hands 
is  constantly  resting  against  the  horse's  mouth.  Pulling 
hands  make  pulling  horses,  because,  when  a  man  takes 
hold  of  the  lines  with  extended  hand,  although  he  is 
not  conscious  of  pulling  at  his  horse's  mouth  and  is  not 
in  reality  doing  so  by  a  muscular  effort,  the  weight  of 
his  hands  and  arms  resting  on  the  reins  amounts  to  the 
same  thing.  So  much  for  the  constant  pulling  on  a 
horse's  mouth;  that  of  necessity  makes  it  calloused  or  so 
hardened  as  to  be  insensible  to  pressure,  until  the  driver 
has  simply  to  pull  his  head  about  by  main  force  to  let 
him  know  what  is  required.  When  the  driver  pulls  at  a 
horse's  mouth,  it  hurts.  He  finds,  however,  that  if  he 
gives  in  to  it  he  is  touched  with  the  whip  to  make  him, 
as  we  say,  "drive  up  to  the  bit," — so  we  will  have  some- 
thing to  rest  the  weight  of  our  arms  and  hands  against. 
The  horse  soon  learns,  also,  that  the  harder  he  makes 
the  driver  pull  at  his  mouth,  the  less  painful  it  is; 
because,  when  the  pressure  is  great  enough,  it  shuts  off 
the  circulation  and  the  parts  become  numb  or  deadened 
to  the  pain.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  pulling  hands 
make  pulling  horses. 

On  the  plow,  we  see  horses  dragging  along  a 
plowman  who  has  the  reins  about  his  body;  again, 
with  a  pair  of  hands  as  heavy  as  lead,  arms  extended, 
the  horses  are  made  to  pull  the  driver  along  in  addi- 
tion to  the  harrow,  and  the  driver  is  by  far  the  most 
fatiguing  pull  of  the  two.  You  may  say  that  he  has 


THE   GENTLE   HANDS   IN  DRIVING  301 

to  do  it, —  can't  hold  them:  then  it  is  the  fault  of 
their  early  training.  All  you  can  do  in  such  a  case 
is  to  drop  the  bit  into  a  new  place  and  make  the 
best  of  it.  Sometimes  the  change  to  a  large,  smooth 
rubber  curved  bit  will  stop  a  horse's  pulling.  The 
proper  mouthing  or  bitting  of  a  young  horse  is  not 
half  appreciated,  and  less  understood  or  practiced  in 
this  country  than  in  Europe.  Anything  and  every- 
thing you  can  do  to  preserve  the  sensitiveness  of  his 
mouth  should  be  done. 

While  there  is  some  excuse  for  holding  on  to  a 
horse  that  is  already  a  puller,  there  is  no  excuse  what- 
ever for  driving  him  with  a  slack  rein  when  he  comes 
to  a  walk.  In  this  way,  we  teach  him  that  when  we 
pull  back  we  want  him  to  go  fast,  and  when  we  let 
up  entirely  he  is  to  walk, —  which  is  just  contrary  to 
what  we  really  intend.  Never  pull  at  a  horse's  mouth 
an  ounce  more  than  is  necessary,  and  never  drive  him 
for  a  rod  without  a  light  touch  of  the  reins  so  you  can 
just  feel  the  bit.  You  can  easily  do  this,  when  your 
hand  is  in  the  position  recommended  (thumbs  up),  by 
permitting  the  wrist  to  give  and  take  to  the  forward 
and  backward  oscillation  of  a  horse's  head  when 
moving. 

As  to  hands  in  driving,  we  are  the  laughing  stock 
of  the  world.1  No  system  or  form  could  be  devised 
that  could  be  worse  than  the  American  style.  It  is 
simply  ruinous  to  a  horse's  mouth.  It  is  a  most  diffi- 
cult thing  to  find  in  America  a  horse  of  any  natural 

1  See  "Cross  Country  With  Horse  and  Hound,"  by  F.  Sherman 
Peer. 


302  THE    HORSE 

spirit  which  has  not  had  his  mouth  damaged,  if  not 
ruined,  by  heavy  hands.  It  is  our  one  common  fault, 
which  accounts  for  the  special  emphasis  placed  upon 
it  in  this  chapter. 

In  teaching  a  colt  to  rein,  his  first  lesson, —  after 
a  week  or  two  of  bitting, —  should  be  with  long  reins 
on  the  barn  floor  or  some  other  small  enclosure.  In 
addition  to  the  reins  and  a  soft,  easy,  smooth,  straight 
bar-bit,  place  a  non-shurring  loop  about  his  under  jaw, 
and  pass  the  rope  about  his  head  and  down  through 
the  loop  in  his  mouth.  When  he  attempts  to  run  or 
get  away,  take  him  in  hand  by  the  rope,  leaving  the 
reins  principally  for  guiding  purposes.  This  will 
teach  him  the  lesson  you  wish  to  impart,  without 
endangering  the  sensitiveness  of  his  mouth  where 
the  bit  naturally  comes. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

CARE    OF   DRAFT-HORSES    AND    FARM-HORSES 

DRAFT-HORSES,  in  this  connection,  include  all  horses 
used  for  slow  or  comparatively  slow  and  exhausting 
work,  especially  farm-horses  used  for  tilling  the 
land.  Horses  in  a  wild  state  graze  largely  at  night, 
while  cattle  feed  largely  in  day  time.  The  horse's 
stomach  is  relatively  small,  implying  that  he  should 
be  fed  more  often  than  cattle,  and  less  at  a  time. 
Horses  do  not  eat  so  fast  as  cattle,  and  do  not  remasti- 
cate  their  food,  as  do  cattle  and  sheep.  Horses  may 
be  fed  three  or  four  times  daily,  while  cattle  and  sheep 
do  well  when  fed  but  twice.  The  morning  ration  of 
the  horse  should  contain  about  one -fourth  of  his  total 
daily  ration,  and  it  should  be  given  him  some  little  time 
before  being  put  to  hard  work.  Another  fourth  of  his 
food  may  be  fed  at  noon.  On  the  farm,  one  hour's 
nooning  instead  of  two,  as  of  yore,  is  best.  The  hour 
saved  will  shorten  the  work -day  one  hour  at  night. 
This  will  give  time  for  the  horse  to  cool  off  before 
the  dampness  and  falling  temperature  of  the  evening 
occur,  which  tend  to  produce  that  disagreeable  and 
dangerous  condition  which  a  person  feels  in  the  evening 
whose  shirt  is  saturated  with  the  prespiration  of  the 
day.  Horses,  and  especially  oxen,  if  perspiring  freely, 

(303) 


304  THE  HORSE 

and  worked  late,  are  frequently  found  in  the  morning 
with  the  hair  and  skin  damp,  and  in  a  condition  of 
lassitude  which  unfits  them  for  entering  upon  the  day's 
labor  with  vigor.  Ten  hours  of  faithful  work  per  day 
is  quite  enough  for  either  man  or  beast;  and  such 
work  would  better  be  accomplished  by  starting  early 
than  by  continuing  late.  If  the  horses  are  brought  to 
the  stable  early,  they  have  time  to  eat  hay  and  to  rest, 
after  which  one -fourth  of  the  grain  ration  is  fed.  Just 
before  the  attendant  retires,  the  last  fourth  of  the 
day's  ration  may  be  given.  Or,  if  this  is  too  much 
trouble,  the  horses  may  be  left  to  eat  hay  for  an  hour 
while  the  teamster  is  eating  supper;  after  which  the 
legs  are  cleaned,  and  then  one  half  of  the  day's  ration 
of  grain  may  be  fed.  The  hay  ration  should  be  fed 
about  the  time  and  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  the 
grain  is  fed.  How  much  grain  and  how  much  hay 
should  suffice  for  each  horse  it  is  impossible  to  say;  since 
the  size  of  the  horse,  his  ability  to  digest  and  assimilate 
food,  the  kind  of  food  consumed,  and  the  work  per- 
formed vary  widely.  When  horses  are  put  to  unusually 
severe  tasks  for  a  month  or  two,  when  work  is  press- 
ing, as  they  usually  are  on  a  farm,  it  is  better  to 
increase  their  grain  than  their  hay  ration.  Quite  a 
large  part  of  the  energy  in  food,  especially  if  it  is 
coarse  food,  is  used  for  preparing  the  ration  for  assimi- 
lation. Coarse  and  unconcentrated  foods  are  frequently 
more  expensive  per  unit  of  net  available  energy  than 
concentrated  ones.  It  is  not  the  total  energy  of  the 
food  so  much  as  the  available  energy  over  and  above 
that  required  to  masticate  and  digest  it  that  gov- 


DR.  H.  P.  ARMSJBY'S   EXPERIMENTS  305 

erns  value.  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby's  experiments  show 
the  following  results:  "Of  the  total  or  'gross'  energy 
of  hay,  about  41  per  cent  was  capable  of  conversion 
into  the  kinetic  form  in  the  animal,  while  the  remain- 
ing 56  per  cent  was  found  as  potential  energy  in  the 
excreta.  Of  the  44  per  cent  which  I  have  called  metabo- 
lizable energy,  about  63  per  cent,  equivalent  to  27.72 
per  cent  of  the  gross  energy  of  the  hay,  was  found  to 
be  available  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal,  while 
the  remaining  37  per  cent  of  the  metabolizable 
energy,  under  our  conditions  of  experiment,  simply 
went  to  increase  the  heat -production  of  the  animal. 
This  37  per  cent  of  the  metabolizable  energy  seems 
to  represent  the  expenditure  of  energy  which  is  in- 
volved in  making  the  remaining  63  per  cent  available 
for  the  actual  uses  of  the  organism.  The  above  results 
represent  the  average  of  four  experiments  only,  on  a 
single  animal,  and  of  course  should  be  generalized 
from  very  cautiously." 

The  more  concentrated  the  food  is,  within  proper 
limits,  the  less  per  cent  of  energy  is  needed  to  make  it 
available.  This  fact  explains  in  part  why  animals 
cannot  be  sustained  and  produce  sufficient  energy  for 
growth  and  work  on  unconcentrated  food,  difficult  to 
masticate  and  prepare  for  assimilation.  It  is  because 
too  great  a  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  the  food  is  used 
in  its  preparation  by  the  stomach,  hence  the  net 
energy  is  small. 

When  horses  are  doing  light  work  or  are  idle,  not 
only  will  less  food  suffice,  but  the  proportion  of  rough, 
cheap  food  to  the  concentrated  may  be  increased. 


306  THE 

Horses  should  be  fed  slightly  less  on  idle  days  than 
when  employed.  Much  of  the  trouble,  particularly 
bowel -complaints,  on  Mondays  is  due  to  over-eating 
on  Sundays.  When  a  record  was  kept  with  farm -work 
horses,  it  was  found  that  there  were  more  than  twice 
as  many  indisposed  horses  on  Monday  as  on  any  other 
day.  When  the  Sunday's  ration  was  slightly  reduced, 
the  health  was  equally  good  on  all  days.  When  prac- 
ticable, work-horses  should  have  some  exercise  every 
day.  This  can  most  easily  be  secured  by  turning  them 
out  for  a  few  hours  in  a  paddock,  on  idle  days.  If 
the  horses  are  at  severe  work,  they  do  better  on  dry 
food  than  on  green  grasses  and  clover.  If  horses  are 
allowed  all  the  green  food  they  desire  at  night,  bowel 
trouble  may  occur  the  next  day  if  the  weather  is  warm 
and  the  work  hard. 

Not  infrequently  the  hay  runs  short  in  late  spring 
and  grass  is  fed  in  the  stables  as  a  substitute.  This 
is  all  very  well  if  the  work  is  light.  New  hay,  while 
still  heating  in  the  mow,  is  always  dangerous.  The 
health  of  a  horse  at  hard  work  is  governed  largely  by 
the  food  he  consumes.  A  little  grass  mixad  with  old, 
dry  hay  may  be  fed  safely,  but  new  hay  passing 
through  a  sweat  should  never  be  used.  In  hot  weather, 
horses  at  severe  work  in  the  fierce  sun  do  best  if  they 
are  kept  in  comfortable  stables  at  night  and  are  fed 
on  roughage  and  concentrates  of  'the  previous  year's 
growth.  Some  horsemen  understand  this,  and  will  pay 
more  for  old  than  for  new  oats  or  hay.  So  the  hay- 
buyer  does  not  bale  hay  for  the  city  until  it  has  gone 
through  the  "sweat"  in  the  mow  or  stack. 


CARE   AND   RATION  FOR  LIGHT    WORK          307 

Neither  green  sheaf  oats,  nor  threshed  oats  which 
have  not  been  seasoned  for  three  months  or  more, 
should  be  fed, —  especially  to  fast  drivers  and  hard- 
worked  draft -animals. 

So  far,  the  feeding  of  horses  used  for  draft  arid 
severe  continuous  farm  work  has  been  discussed;  but 
there  are  many  horses  on  farms  which  have  light, 
intermittent  work,  in  which  case  quite  different 
methods  of  feeding  may  be  practiced.  If  pastures  are 
abundant,  the  horses  may  be  turned  out  at  night,  and 
in  the  day-time  when  not  in  use.  They  may  receive 
less  than  one -half  as  much  concentrated  food  as  the 
horse  at  severe  toil.  A  good  practice  is  to  bring  the 
horses  to  the  stables  in  the  morning,  that  they  may  be 
quickly  available  if  wanted.  A  little  hay  and  grain 
may  serve  for  their  noon  feed.  If  the  pastures  are 
satisfactory,  the  horses  may  be  turned  out  in  the  early 
evening  without  having  received  any  food  whatever  in 
the  stables,  even  if  they  have  been  at  moderate  work. 

Little  or  no  grain  food  or  grooming  or  care  will  be 
necessary,  provided  the  horse's  work  is  not  hard  or 
continued  for  too  many  hours  a  day.  If  the  outside 
covering  of  the  horse  does  look  a  little  unkempt,  it 
will  correspond  with  the  clothes  of  the  driver,  both 
being  suited  to  their  work.  The  horse  which  is  used 
for  purely  utilitarian  purposes  should  be  the  servant 
of  man;  not  man  the  servant  of  the  horse,  as  is  some- 
times the  case  when  the  owner  waits  on  his  pet  horse 
more  than  he  does  on  his  wife.  This  may  be  appro- 
priate if  the  horse  is  kept  for  conspicuous  display  and 
the  wife  for  work. 


308  THE  HORSE 

In  America,  food  is  so  abundant  and  varied  that  the 
horseman  has  opportunity  of  wide  choice.  Hay,  bright 
straw,  corn-stalks  and  even  silage  serve  well  for  rough- 
age. Usually  all  of  these  fodders  have  a  wide  nutri- 
tive ratio  and  therefore  require  that  the  grain  ration 
be  narrow.  The  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in  com- 
pounding a  suitable  ration  after  studying  Appendix  III. 
(See  Chapter  XVII  for  feeding  driving-horses  and  those 
employed  at  other  light,  quick  work.)  Farm-horses 
when  at  moderate  work,  and  especially  mares  with  foal 
at  foot,  may  wholly  or  in  part  be  soiled  —  fed  in  the 
stables  on  green  food  —  especially  if  their  grain  ration 
be  abundant  and  well  seasoned.  Grass,  clover  oats  and 
peas  are  good  for  summer  soiling.  See  "Soiling,"  by 
F.  S.  Peer. 

WATERING 

In  ivarm  weather,  horses  which  are  working  hard 
enjoy  a  sip  of  water  before  partaking  of  their  morning 
meal,  and  even  in  cool  weather  some  horses  relish  a 
drink  before  breakfast.  All  horses  can  be  trained  to 
this  habit,  and  it  is  probable  that  such  habit  promotes 
healthfulness,  since,  if  watered  before  they  are  fed, 
they  are  not  likely  to  drink  much  after  their  morning 
meal.  Large  quantities  of  'cold  water  taken  into  the 
stomach  immediately  after  a  meal  tend  to  arrest  diges- 
tion. It  may  also  cause  serious  irritation  of  the  intes- 
tines by  washing  undigested  food  into  the  alimentary 
canal.  If  provision  could  be  made  on  the  farm  without 
too  great  expense  for  watering  horses  when  at  work,  in 
warm  weather,  in  the  middle  of  the  fore-  and  afternoon, 


HEATING   DRINKING    WATER  309 

it  would  be  both  profitable  and  humane, —  for  without 
water  they  often  suffer  when  sweating  profusely. 
Horses  naturally  drink  when  they  come  from  their 
labors  to  the  stable,  and  this  is  well  if  they  do  not 
drink  too  much;  for  water  taken  when  the  animal  is 
thirsty,  before  eating,  quickly  passes  into  the  circula- 
tion, whereas  the  same  amount  of  water  taken  after  a 
hearty  meal  would  tend,  as  before  stated,  to  arrest 
digestion.  Cold  water  taken  in  large  quantities,  when 
the  horse  is  unusually  depressed  or  when  over -warm, 
may  chill  the  stomach  to  the  point  where  it  reacts  but 
slowly,  in  which  case  colic  or  founder  may  result.  If 
reaction  comes  promptly,  as  it  should  when  a  cold- 
water  internal  bath  is  taken,  the  stomach  is  stimulated 
instead  of  being  depressed.  If  horses  are  thirsty  when 
fed,  they  do  not  relish  their  food.  A  full  supply  of 
water  in  the  system  is  quite  as  necessary  as  a  full 
supply  of  food.  It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  water 
is  the  great  vehicle  which  carries  food  into,  and  most 
of  the  refuse  material  out  of,  circulation. 

Heating  water  for  cattle  has  been  tried  to  some  ex- 
tent, but  the  practice  has  been  largely  abandoned,  the 
reason  for  which  I  think  is  explainable.  First,  no  suit- 
able appliances  were  at  hand  when  the  attempt  was 
made  to  heat  the  water,  and  the  temperature  was  not 
raised  above  lukewarm.  Lukewarm  water  is  not  only 
less  palatable  than  cool  or  hot  water  but  may  be  posi- 
tively nauseating.  Water  raised  to  98°  or  100°  Fahr. 
is  highly  relished  by  both  cattle  and  horses  in  cold 
weather.  Hot  water  saves  food,  promotes  health  and 
digestion,  and  may,  under  certain  conditions,  prevent 


310  THE  HORSE 


chills  and  founder  in  severely  worked  horses.  The  only 
reason  for  not  providing  it  is  that  it  is  not  usually  con- 
venient to  do  so.  In  a  few  cases,  steam  is  in  the  barn 
or  can  be  generated  easily  and  cheaply,  in  which  case  it 
is  wise  and  profitable  to  heat  the  water  for  both  cattle 
and  horses,  in  cold  weather.  Horses  consume  less  water 
than  cows  in  milk.  The  average  for  horses  at  work  is 
not  far  from  forty  pounds  and  for  cattle  in  milk  sixty 
pounds  daily.  The  taking  into  the  system  of  such  large 
quantities  of  water  often  at  or  near  the  freezing  point, 
is  not  conducive  to  economy  or  health;  for  this  water 
must  be  raised  by  the  use  of  food  to  blood-heat,  quickly. 
Since  it  takes  more  units  of  heat  to  raise  a  unit  of  water 
one  degree  in  temperature  than  any  other  food  sub- 
stance, it  can  easily  be  understood  that  a  considerable 
part  of  the  ration  of  the  animal  must  be  used  in  rais- 
ing the  temperature  of  the  water.  However,  the  matter 
is  largely  a  financial  one.  In  some  parts  of  our  coun- 
try roughage  is  cheaper  than  coal;  in  other  sections, 
the  reverse  is  true. 

In  the  winter,  horses  are  likely  to  become  consti- 
pated. Their  voidings  should  be  watched  closely,  for 
constipation  is  the  mother  of  many  ills.  Carrots  are 
much  relished  by  horses  kept  on  dry  foods.  Unsalable 
apples,  if  fairly  ripe,  or  small  potatoes,  may  be  fed  to 
advantage  in  small  quantities,  though  they  are  of  small 
nutritive  value.  Mangolds  are  fairly  good  and  cheap  of 
production,  as  twenty  -five  to  forty  tons  per  acre  can  be 
raised  and  the  cost  per  bushel  is  not  more  than  one  -half 
as  much  as  of  carrots.  A  hot  bran  mash  is  a  most  excel- 
lent regulator  of  the  bowels.  However,  a  gill  per  day  of 


OIL-MEAL  AND   SALT  311 

oil-meal  helps  to  narrow  the  almost  invariably  too  wide 
ration,  corrects  constipation  and  tends  to  make  the  skin 
pliable  and  the  hair  soft.  Nevertheless,  it  is  seldom 
that  the  farmer  can  be  persuaded  to  purchase  even  a 
single  ton  of  oil-meal,  or  to  feed  it  even  in  an  experi- 
mental way.  He  has  been  feeding,  for  instance,  four 
quarts  of  grain  at  a  time,  the  measure  full.  If  he  adds 
a  pound  of  oil-meal  to  the  ration,  the  supply  is  soon 
exhausted.  He  has  seen  no  marked  beneficial  results, 
since  he  has  not  observed  closely  enough  to  have  seen 
the  constant  little  changes  for  the  better,  day  by  day; 
and  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  his  twenty -five 
dollars  which  he  paid  for  the  ton  of  oil-meal  has  been 
thrown  away,  and,  of  course,  purchases  no  more. 

Draft-  and  farm -horses  require  more  salt  than  do 
those  put  to  less  severe  work.  Salt  should  be  accessible 
at  all  times  in  the  stall.  The  common  soft  salt  is  to  be 
preferred  to  rock  salt,  especially  the  cheap  kinds,  as  the 
tongues  of  the  animals  may  be  irritated  by  licking  it, 
notably  of  those  requiring  a  liberal  supply.  Four  horses 
on  dry  feed  ate  twenty -eight  pounds  of  salt  in  fifty -six 
days,  or  two  ounces  per  day  per  horse.  In  experiments 
with  cows,  at  the  end  of  forty-three  days  it  was  found 
that  they  consumed  three  and  fifteen  one  hundredth 
ounces  of  salt  per  cow  per  day. 

Horses  relish  a  little  hard-wood  ashes,  and  it  used  to 
be  a  common  practice  among  farmers  to  supply  them 
with  limited  quantities,  once  each  week.  Horses,  as  well 
as  pigs,  when  fed  on  dry  food,  appear  to  be  benefited 
by  small  quantities  of  charcoal,  if  they  do  not  have 
access  to  the  ground. 


312  THE   HORSE 

BLANKETS 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  use  of  blankets, 
in  Chapter  XVII,  is  true  with  slight  modification  when 
applied  to  their  use  on  draft-  and  far  in -horses.  Stable 
blankets  when  judiciously  used  promote  health  and 
economize  labor,  but,  when  used  injudiciously  or  of  too 
heavy  weight,  they  tend  to  injure  appetite  and  to  make 
horses  more  sensitive  to  the  many  vicissitudes  which 
they  are  called  upon  to  pass  through. 

Fly -blankets  to  be  used  outside  of  the  stables  are 
not  to  be  recommended;  fly -nets  are,  under  certain 
conditions.  Farm -horses  should  always  be  supplied 
with  a  throat -latch  cloth  when  the  annoying  bot-flies 
are  present.  Fly -blankets  of  strong  enough  material 
to  last  a  reasonable  length  of  time  prevent  the  free 
radiation  of  heat  and  moisture  from  the  body.  Leather 
fly-nets  are  not  objectionable.  Fly-nets  and  fly-blankets 
are  both  annoying  to  the  teamster,  are  more  or  less 
expensive,  and  should  not  be  used  if  reliable  material 
for  spraying  the  horse  can  be  secured.  The  "Eureka 
Fly-killer"  and  some  others  are  fairly  satisfactory  when 
used  twice  daily;  they  largely  protect  the  animal,  and 
do  not  soil  or  injure  the  hair,  and,  all  things  considered, 
they  are  cheaper  and  more  satisfactory  outdoor  fly- 
protectors  than  blankets.  A  little  sprayer  suitable  for 
applying  the  material  can  be  purchased  at  almost  any 
hardware  store  for  a  dollar  or  less. 

Even  more  pains  should  be  taken  in  fitting  the 
harness  of  draft-  and  farm -horses  than  of  drivers. 
See  Chapter  XVII. 


HORSES   SUITED    TO    THEIR    WORK  313 

Horses  designed  for  heavy  work  should  not  only  be 
of  strong  build,  but  of  height  suited  to  their  weight. 
Here,  as  in  all  other  productive  enterprises,  the  best  of 
judgment  should  be  exercised  to  adapt  the  weight  of 
the  horse  to  his  work,  and  the  soil  upon  which  he  is 
kept,  and  the  climate  in  which  he  is  used.  Most  farm- 
horses  are  too  light  for  the  work  required,  a  few  are 
too  heavy.  Some  soils  are  easily  tilled,  some  farms 
are  hilly,  some  farmers  do  little  plowing  or  other 
laborious  team  work.  Manifestly,  under  such  conditions, 
a  horse  weighing  sixteen  hundred  pounds  would  be  out 
of  place.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plowing  of  tenacious 
soils,  and  the  hauling  of  large  loads  are  most  economi- 
cally accomplished  with  horses  of  from  twelve  to  six- 
teen hundred  pounds7  weight.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  a  horse  of  twelve  hundred  pounds  in 
good  flesh  may  weigh  but  ten  hundred  pounds  when 
thin  in  late  summer,  and  the  horse  of  sixteen  hundred 
pounds  may  weigh  but  fourteen  hundred  pounds  when 
called  upon  to  draw  the  heaviest  loads  of  the  year. 
Finally,  it  may  be  said  that,  in  general,  the  farmer 
has  been  mingling  the  trotting  strains  of  blood  too 
liberally  with  his  nondescript  mares,  and  sometimes 
with  ruinous  results. 


SIZE   AND    WEIGHT    OF   HORSES 

We  make  no  plea  for  the  light  horse  or  for  the 
heavy  horse.  What  we  do  emphasize  is  the  wisdom  of 
breeding  the  horse  which  can  perform  the  services 
required  most  effectively  and  economically  under  any 


314  THE  HORSE 

given  conditions.  Horses  of  light  weight  are  at  a  great 
disadvantage  when  used  for  heavy  loads,  especially  on 
an  ascending  road  and  on  slippery  pavements;  while 
horses  of  heavy  weight  are  at  a  disadvantage  if  used 
at  light  work,  or  for  harrowing  on  soft  ground.  In  the 
former  instance,  there  is  not  enough  weight  to  secure 
adequate  traction  —  adhesive  friction, —  in  the  latter, 
there  is  unnecessary  traction  due  to  unnecessary  weight 
of  team,  for  the  work  to  be  accomplished;  hence  the 
most  economical  expenditure  of  energy  is  not  secured. 

DRIVING-,  FARM-  AND  DRAFT -HORSES 

Of  necessity  these  horses  are  driven  slowly;  hence 
full  opportunity  is  given  for  avoiding  obstructions 
without  sharp  and  quick  attention  to  the  reins.  Little 
or  no  display  is  required  of  the  farm -horse;  hence 
his  check -rein  may  be  loose,  the  driving  reins  fairly 
slack,  and  all  his  gear  and  movements  arranged  to 
perform  service  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of 
energy.  This  does  not  imply  carelessness  nor  dis- 
obedience on  the  part  of  the  horse.  It  does  imply  less 
guidance  by  rein,  and  more  by  words  than  would  be 
suitable  for  a  roadster.  However,  it  keeps  the  draft  - 
and  farm -horse  up  to  their  highest  standard  of 
efficiency,  if  occasionally,  when  they  are  not  wearied, 
they  are  driven  rapidly  with  tight  rein  for  a  short- 
distance;  it  does  them  good  to  stir  them  up  now  and 
then.  Such  drives  bring  other  muscles  into  play  than 
those  used  at  slow,  heavy  work,  enliven  the  team, 
and  in  many  ways  are  beneficial. 


BACKING    THE  HORSE 


315 


The  class  of  horses  of  which  we  are  speaking  are 
called  upon  to  back  frequently,  often  under  most 
difficult  conditions.  To  see  energy  expended  for  naught, 
watch  a  team  backing  after  both  man  and  team  have 
lost  their  tempers.  Back  the  horses  come,  saying  as 
plainly  as  they  can,  "You  fool  driver";  then  come 
loud  words,  a  yanking  of  the  reins,  the  sting  of  the 
lash,  and  back  the  load  comes,  but  in  the  wrong  place, 
and  this  may  be  repeated  several  times  before  the 
wagon  is  placed  satisfactorily.  No  wonder  there  is 
need  of  a  society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to 
auimals  ! 


A  trained  horse  with  extraordinary  development  ni 
Owned  by  Dr.  F.  B.  Howe,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTER    XX 

THE  HOUSE'S  FEET— SHOEING 

MUCH  has  been  written  on  shoeing  horses,  but  it  is 
seldom  that  any  two  authorities  agree.  The  mechanic 
who  does  the  shoeing  has  his  notions;  usually,  they  are 
nothing  but  notions,  since  he  has  no  knowledge  what 
ever  of  the  anatomy  of  the  foot,  and  little  or  no  expe 
rience  in  the  varied  uses  to  which  horses  are  put.  The 
veterinarian  is  called  on  only  when  the  feet  have 
become  abnormal  or  diseased.  The  owner  of  the  horse, 
be  he  farmer,  tradesman  or  a  horse  fancier,  often 
knows  even  less  as  to  when  and  how  a  horse  should  be 
shod  than  the  blacksmith.  These  unfortunate  condi- 
tions result  in  producing  a  multitude  of  opinions, — 
some  founded  on  wide  observation  and  hence  of  value, 
a  few  on  facts;  but,  in  the  main,  the  opinions  are 
simply  notions  founded  on  a  single  observation,  or,  at 
best,  but  few. 

Under  the  circumstances,  what  can  be  said  which 
will  assist  the  young  farmer!  We  hesitate  to  write 
anything  about  the  shoeing  of  horses;  but  we  feel 
loath  to  leave  the  young  men  at  the  mercy  of  the 
untrained,  country  blacksmith,  or  to  the  loud  opinions 
of  some  city  mechanic  who,  because  he  has  shod  the 
horses  of  the  Honorable  Mr.  Smithkins,  imagines  that 
he  has  nothing  more  to  learn. 

(316) 


FEET  BIGHT  AT  BIRTH  317 

The  feet  of  the  horse  being  a  prime  factor  when 
value  and  usefulness  are  considered,  it  will  be  well  if 
this  factor  be  taken  into  account  when  the  sire  and 
dam  are  selected  and  mated;  for  like  produces  like, 
under  like  conditions.  Good -footed  parents  tend  to 
produce  good-footed  offspring.  Horses  with  poor  feet 
should  never  be  used  as  progenitors  of  their  species. 
Supposing  that  the  colt  is  born  right,  that  he  is  of 
good  inheritance,  still  his  feet  should  receive  attention, 
especially  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  Not  infrequently 
he  is  kept  in  the  stable  for  half  of  the  year,  if  so,  the 
feet  wear  away  but  little;  if  he  stands  on  manure  from 
which  ammonia  is  escaping,  the  growth  of  the  hoofs 
is  stimulated,  the  harder  parts  of  the  foot  are  softened, 
and  the  softer  portion  (the  frog)  develops  an  abnor- 
mal growth,  which  not  infrequently  leads  to  a  diseased 
foot.  Even  if  the  colt  is  allowed  to  stand  on  manure 
from  which  ammonia  is  not  escaping,  the  hoofs  are 
still  likely  to  make  too  much  growth. 

To  avoid  many,  if  not  all  of  the  ills  produced  by 
stable  confinement,  paddocks  or  large  yards  should  be 
provided  where  the  colts  may  spend  a  large  part  of 
each  day.  True,  the  hair  will  grow  longer  than  it 
would  if  they  were  confined  in  warm  stables  but  this 
will  not  be  so  serious  a  matter  as  to  have  the  hoofs 
grow  long,  soft  and  out  of  shape.  But,  in  any  case, 
the  feet  of  colts  should  receive  attention  and  be  pared 
off  whenever  the  growth  much  exceeds  the  wear.  This 
attention  is  especially  necessary  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  just  before  they  are  turned  to  pasture. 

If,  then,  the  horse  has  good  inheritance  and  has  had 


318  THE    HORSE 

proper  attention  during  colthood,  he  should  come  to 
his  life  work  with  sound,  normal -shaped,  hard  feet. 
From  this  on,  use  and  breed  should  both  be  considered. 
The  draft -horse  with  his  large,  comparatively  flat  foot, 
and  the  roadster,  which  sometimes  has  narrow  heels, 
should  have  quite  different  foot  treatment  as  to  cutting 
away  the  surplus  growth  and  as  to  the  weight  and 
shape  of  the  shoe.  When  the  comparatively  low  heel 
of  the  draft-horse  and  the  comparatively  high  heel  of 
the  roadster  are  not  too  pronounced,  both  are  well 
adapted  to  the  work  which  these  two  classes  of  horses 
are  usually  called  upon  to  perform.  Climate,  soil  and 
use  combined  have  resulted  in  producing,  as  a  rule,  the 
foot  best  adapted  to  all  the  conditions  under  which  the 
breeds  and  varieties  were  formed.  When  it  becomes 
necessary  to  place  a  breed  under  conditions  differing 
from  those  in  which  the  breed  grew  up,  care  should  be 
taken  to  select  those  specimens  which  have  varied, 
however  slightly,  toward  the  forms  which  will  be  best 
adapted  to  the  changed  conditions.  Then  climate,  soil 
and  use  will  soon  accentuate  the  variations,  and  the 
breed  will  quickly  become  adapted  to  its  changed  con- 
ditions, instead  of  breaking  down  under  them.  To  the 
heavy  draft -horse,  his  large  feet  are  to  him  what  wide 
tires  are  to  the  freight  wagon,  when  used  on  rough 
pavements  or  on  soft  ground.  So,  reasonably  large 
feet  and  reasonably  low  heels  are  well  suited  to  a  heavy 
draft-horse.  The  great  weight  of  the  draft-horse  makes 
it  necessary  to  shoe  him  so  as  to  bind  and  sustain  the 
quarters  of  the  foot  and  protect  the  frog  as  well. 
Hence,  the  shoes  of  the  draft -horse  should  be  rather 


CONTRACTED   HEELS  319 

wide  of  web  and  thick  of  substance.  A  shoe  with  a 
wide  web  at  the  heel  will  protect  the  frog  of  the  foot, 
and  a  thick  shoe  wiLl  prevent  the  foot  from  spreading 
when  called  on  to  sustain  heavy  weights.  If  the  web 
of  the  shoe  be  drawn  in  slightly  at  the  heel,  and 
if  the  shoe  extends  well  back,  the  frog  is  usually  safe 
from  abrasions.  It  is  only  in  rare  cases  that  a  sound 
foot  is  so  wide  and  weak  at  the  heel  as  to  require  a 
bar -shoe. 

The  foot  of  the  light  horse,  particularly  the  road- 
ster, is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  draft -horse. 
Here  the  tendency  is  often  toward  contracted  heels. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  drive  fast  steppers  with  high 
heels  slowly  when  going  down  hill.  Even  good  shoeing 
cannot  overcome  the  effects  of  injudicious  driving.  If 
shoes  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  front  feet  too  long, 
a  single  day's  hard  and  careless  driving  on  paved  roads 
or  over  a  hilly  country  may  lay  the  foundation  for 
contracted  feet  or  "jammed"  shoulders,  or  both.  After 
one  of  thes*e  injudicious  drives,  the  horse  comes  out  of 
the  stable  with  less  suppleness  and  less  freedom  of 
stride  than  before.  If  the  abuse  is  continued,  the  stiff- 
ness of  the  shoulders  and  the  tenderness  of  the  feet 
increase  rapidly;  and  then  appropriate  shoeing  may 
somewhat  alleviate  the  pain,  but  it  will  not  cure  the 
unsoundness.  Manifestly,  prevention  is  better  than 
palliation. 

The  heels  of  horses  designed  for  fast  work  are 
usually  naturally  bound  together  firmly  and  closely;  a 
necessity  if  the  horse  is  to  be  driven  rapidly  on  hard 
roads.  However,  the  heels  of  the  front  feet  may  be  so 


320  THE    HORSE 

high  as  to  result  in  severe  heel  concussion,  and  so 
narrow  as  to  restrict  the  elastic  play  of  the  frog, 
which  normally  greatly  modifies  and  alleviates  the 
concussion  of  the  foot  when  the  horse  is  in  rapid 
motion.  If  this  elastic  cushion  becomes  hard  and 
somewhat  unresponsive,  it  will  not  be  long  before  the 
other  members  of  the  foot  will  suffer.  If  the  trouble 
is  not  alleviated  quickly,  the  heel  contracts  and  the 
non- sensitive  envelope  of  the  foot  becomes  too  small 
for  the  internal  sensitive  portions.  Horses  with  high, 
narrow  heels  should  be  shod  frequently,  and  a  liberal 
portion  of  the  hoof  should  be  pared  away. 

The  foot  may  be  but  slightly  affected,  in  which  case 
a  spirited  horse  will  not  limp  when  driven.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  thing  for  horsemen  to  dispose  of  their 
horses  before  the  unsoundness  can  be  detected  by  the 
inexperienced  purchaser.  However,  even  if  the  animal 
be  but  slightly  affected,  if  it  be  left  entirely  quiet  for  a 
little  time,  it  usually  thrusts  out  one  front  foot  ahead 
of  the  other,  thus  relieving  the  foot  of  some  of  its 
normal  weight.  If  both  feet  are  affected,  the  horse 
may  ease  first  one  and  then  the  other. 

In  this  work- a -day  world,  it  matters  little  to  the 
commoner  whether  a  horse  trots  a  mile  in  three  min- 
utes, or  three  minutes  and  forty  and  one-half  seconds, 
but  the  character  of  the  feet  does  matter.  In  addition 
to  good  inherited  feet,  see  to  it  that  the  horse  is  not 
ignorantly  driven,  and  that  his  feet  receive  appropriate 
attention  in  the  stable.  Having  seen  to  all  this,  we 
may  approach  the  blacksmith  shop  with  a  clear  con- 
science. 


FROG   MODIFIES   CONCUSSION  321 

The  feet  of  most  horses  kept  for  fast  work  are  not 
pared  away  enough.  The  heels  are  left  so  high  as  to 
prevent  the  frog  from  coming  into  contact  with  the 
ground.  If  the  frog  does  not  perform  its  legitimate 
purpose  of  modifying  concussion,  then  it  soon  becomes 
hard  and  inelastic.  However  much  it  may  be  necessary 
to  reduce  the  horny  portion,  the  buttress  should  seldom 
or  never  be  used  on  the  frog  of  the  foot.  Never  cut 
away  the  rough  and  apparently  dead  exterior  of  a 
sound  foot,  for  this  is  as  necessary  as  the  semi -sensitive 
parts  which  are  not  and  should  not  be  exposed.  So,  the 
first  instruction  to  the  blacksmith  should  be,  Do  not  use 
the  buttress  on  the  frog.  He  may  lower  the  hard  envelop- 
ing outer  crust  of  the  foot  sufficiently  to  allow  the  frog 
to  come  into  contact  with  the  ground  where  the  dirt  is 
soft  enough  to  allow  the  shoe,  or  the  greater  part  of  it, 
to  sink  into  the  ground.  Or  the  rim  of  the  foot  may  be 
cut  away  until  the  frog  just  escapes  full  contact  with 
the  smooth  pavement,  after  the  plates  or  the  light  shoes 
have  been  put  on.  If  the  frog  is  slightly  higher  than 
the  face  of  the  shoe,  the  inequalities  in  the  pavement 
are  enough  to  bring  the  frog  in  contact  with  the  earth 
sufficiently  to  keep  it  in  a  healthy  condition. 

The  long  strides  of  the  roadster  result  in  the  heel 
of  the  foot  striking  the  ground  much  in  the  advance  of 
the  toe.  It  can  readily  be  seen  why  the  heels  of  road- 
sters tend  to  become  feverish,  and  ultimately  con- 
tracted. By  paring  down  the  heel  as  much  as  practica- 
ble without  endangering  the  frog,  some  of  the  severe 
heel  concussion  may  be  avoided.  The  student  should 
observe  carefully  how  the  fore  feet  of  various  classes  of 

u 


322  THE    HORSE 

horses  and  of  individual  horses  come  in  contact  with  the 
road,  as  it  will  help  to  determine  how  the  feet  should  be 
pared  and  shod.  The  shoes  of  the  horse  of  quick  move- 
ment should  be  rather  light  and  not  so  thick  or  broad  of 
web  as  those  of  draft -horses.  The  narrow  web  exposes 
the  frog  to  wear  more  than  the  wide  one  does.  Some 
contact  of  the  frog  with  the  earth  is  desirable  and  really 
necessary.  If  the  shoe  be  somewhat  thin,  especially  near 
the  toe -calk,  it  will  permit  the  heel  to  expand  slightly. 
Sometimes  it  is  well  to  cut  it  in  two  in  the  middle,  and 
make  two  half  plates  of  it.  This  method  of  shoeing 
gives  the  greatest  possible  opportunity  for  expansion 
of  the  heel.  Sometimes  the  ends  of  the  shoe,  after  it  is 
set,  are  slightly  expanded  by  the  use  of  a  strong  pair  of 
tongs;  but  this  practice  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It 
is  seldom  that  the  sound  foot  is  benefited  by  the  use 
of  the  bar- shoe.  When  the  feet  are  abnormal,  diseased 
or  injured,  do  not  trust  your  own  or  the  blacksmith's 
opinion,  but  consult  a  veterinarian.  In  fact,  all  veteri- 
narians should  have  facilities  for  shoeing  horses  that 
have  imperfect  or  diseased  feet. 

A  third  instruction  should  be,  Fit  the  shoe  to  the 
foot  and  not  the  foot  to  the  shoe.  Use  the  lightest  nails 
that  will  hold  the  shoe  in  place  a  reasonable  length 
of  time.  Some  horses  should  be  shod  semi-monthly; 
others  need  not  have  their  shoes  removed  more  than 
once  every  twenty  or  thirty  days.  The  character  of  the 
foot  and  the  work  performed  should  determine  the 
length  of  time  a  shoe  should  be  worn.  And,  lastly,  give 
strict  injunctions  not  to  rasp  or  polish  or  beautify  the 
outside  of  the  hoof.  Nature  has  provided  not  only  a 


NATURE'S   MODES    OF  ACTION  323 

most  beautiful  outer  coating  for  the  hoof,  but  one  that 
is  nearly  impervious  to  moisture.  Destroy  this  by  the 
use  of  the  rasp,  and  the  hoof  becomes,  first,  too  wet, 
then  too  dry  and  hard,  and  finally  unhealthy.  The 
natural  oily  protective  covering  of  the  foot  is  far 
superior  to  any  concoction  of  tar,  lampblack  and  linseed 
oil, —  even  though  it  be  perfumed  and  mixed  according 
to  some  well -guarded  formula.  True,  the  clinches  of 
the  nails  should  be  smoothed  off  lightly;  otherwise,  the 
outside  of  the  hoof  should  not  be  rasped  or  filed,  unless 
it  is  abnormal.  If  the  foot  is  normal,  it  is  not  well 
to  shorten  the  toe  and  then  attempt  to  give  form  to 
the  foot  by  using  a  rasp.  Some  one  has  said  that  the 
Lord  put  all  the  water  in  milk  that  it  would  bear. 
Nature's  modes  of  action,  undisturbed,  produce  a  good- 
shaped  foot;  don't  try  to  improve  it.  If  the  foot  is 
good  to  start  with,  has  been  watched  and  cared  for 
during  its  growth,  has  been  judiciously  used  and  prop- 
erly protected  by  iron  or  steel,  still  some  attention 
should  be  given  it,  because  the  horse,  when  stand- 
ing in  the  stable,  is  placed  in  unnatural  conditions;  if 
standing  on  a  hard  floor,  his  fore  feet,  especially,  be- 
come dry  and  unelastic.  Suggestions  have  already  been 
given  as  to  caring  for  the  legs.  When  this  is  being 
done,  the  feet  should  be  examined  that  the  condition 
of  the  shoes  may  be  known,  and,  if  extraneous  dirt 
adheres  to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  it  should  be  removed. 
Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  horse  has  been  put  to 
severe  road -work  for  several  days,  and  that  this  is 
followed  by  little  or  no  driving  for  an  equal  period, 
and  that  the  horse  is  left  to  stand  on  a  dry  plank 


324  THE  HOltSti 

floor;  these  conditions,  especial!}'  in  dry  weather  in 
mid -summer  or  in  cold  weather  in  winter,  result  in 
causing  the  feet  to  become  over-dry,  and,  in  fact, 
slightly  contracted,  while  the  horse  is  losing  something 
of  his  suppleness.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  horses  which 
are  used  only  occasionally  do  not  get  regular  exercise. 
Hence  something  should  be  done  to  modify  the  un- 
desirable conditions.  The  floor  of  the  stall  should  be 
kept  slightly  damp;  sawdust  may  be  spread  at  the 
front  end  of  the  stall,  or,  better  still,  use  a  moderate 
amount  of  clay  slightly  dampened,  but  not  so  damp 
as  to  soil  the  horse;  or,  best  of  all,  provide  box- 
stalls  for  horses  which  have  intermittent  work  and 
which  alternate  between  severe  work  and  idleness. 
(See  Chapter  XXI.)  There  are  several  ways  of  prevent- 
ing the  front  feet  from  becoming  dry  and  hard  when, 
of  necessity,  the  horse  is  left  to  stand  on  a  hard  floor 
for  periods  of  time  varying  from  a  few  days  to  a  few 
weeks.  We  hesitate  to  recommend  packing  the  front 
feet  with  moistened  linseed  meal,  because  the  tendency 
too  often  is  to  leave  the  packing  in  the  foot  too  long, 
and  not  to  cleanse  the  foot  thoroughly  when  it  is 
removed.  Oil-meal  is  a  highly  nitrogenous  product, 
and  hence  becomes  offensive  and  even  dangerous  to 
the  foot  if  the  packing  is  not  removed  and  the  foot 
thoroughly  cleansed  often.  The  oil-meal  packing  is 
most  excellent  when  properly  used;  the  careless  man 
would  better  use  clay  for  packing.  If  the  feet  of 
horses  used  severely  on  hard  roads  are  examined  daily, 
and  simple  treatment  given  when  necessary,  one  will 
soon  discover  if  the  foot  has  a  tendency  to  become 


OVERREACHING   PALLIATED  325 

fevet-ish  and  unsound,  and  then  may  call  in  a  veteri- 
narian in  time  for  him  to  be  of  some  use  in  saving 
the  feet  of  a  valuable  horse.  If  the  foot  is  neglected 
until  it  becomes  badly  diseased,  even  the  expert  can- 
not usually  restore  it  to  soundness.  All  that  can  be 
expected  of  him  is  to  palliate  the  trouble. 

Some  horses  overreach  because  of  faulty  form. 
The  front  quarters  of  such  horses  may  have  something 
of  the  draft  conformation,  while  the  hind  quarters 
approach  the  trotting -horse  build.  In  other-  words, 
the  front  feet  cannot  get  out  of  the  way  of  the  hind 
ones,  because  of  their  hesitating  motion,  and  the 
long,  quick  reach  of  the  hind  feet.  If,  by  a  slightly 
modified  method  of  shoeing,  the  movement  of  the 
fore  feet  can  be  hastened,  and  that  of  the  hind 
feet  retarded  by  a  fraction  of  a  second,  the  over- 
reach will  be  obviated.  If  the  soles  of  the  front 
feet  be  lowered  at  the  toes  and  the  toes  slightly 
shortened,  and  the  heels  left  rather  high,  the  roll 
of  the  foot  and  the  time  of  the  heel's  leaving  the 
ground  are  hastened.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  heel 
of  the  hind  foot  be  kept  rather  low,  and  the  toe 
slightly  longer  and  higher  than  the  normal,  the  time  of 
the  hind  foot  leaving  the  ground  will  be  slightly 
retarded.  If,  by  reason  of  the  lowered,  shortened  toe, 
the  time  when  the  front  foot  leaves  the  ground  be 
hastened,  and  that  of  the  hind  foot  retarded  by  reason 
of  the  slightly  higher  and  longer  toe,  the  fraction  of  a 
second  needed  to  keep  the  hind  foot  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  front  one  is  secured.  The  blacksmith 
usually  reverses  all  this, — shoves  the  front  shoe  forward 


326  THE   HORSE 

to  get  it  out  of  the  way  of  the  hind  one,  and  places  the 
hind  shoe  back  of  its  normal  position,  with  the  hope 
that  it  will  not  strike  the  front  one.  This  method  of 
shoeing  does  not  accomplish  the  desired  result.  Taut 
lines  and  encouragement  on  the  part  of  the  driver 
materially  assist  the  horse  to  overcome  the  habit  of 
overreaching  or  stumbling. 

Many  patent  shoes  designed  to  save  the  front  feet  of 
horses,  especially  the  frogs  of  the  feet,  are  on  the  mar- 
ket. None  of  them  are  of  much  use  to  sound  feet;  some 
are  a  positive  injury  to  the  foot,  as  they  cause  the  frog 
to  become  tender  from  non-use  and,  in  time,  to  become 
diseased.  When  the  foot  becomes  unsound,  a  padded 
shoe  may  palliate  pain  and  prolong  the  usefulness  of 
the  animal;  but  all  of  these  shoes  which  we  have  seen 
allow  the  dirt  and  filth  to  get  under  the  protecting  pad. 
By  reason  of  the  constant  wet,  dirty  and  unsanitary 
conditions  of  the  frog  and  sole  of  the  foot,  due  to  the 
dirt  under  the  pad,  and  the  partial  exclusion  of  the  air, 
the  foot  inside  of  the  hard  outside  covering  tends  to 
become  soft,  tender,  bad-smelling  and  diseased.  Patent 
horseshoes  can,  at  best,  only  palliate  the  ills  of  the  feet 
due  to  bad  breeding,  over -driving,  want  of  care  and  the 
insane  desire  to  draw  the  largest  possible  load  or  to  pass 
everything  on  the  road.  The  ideal  horseshoe  is  yet  to 
be  invented.  The  horse's  foot  really  requires  little 
attention,  if  the  horse  is  bred  right  and  used  humanely 
and  with  judgment.  We  wonder  if  time  is  so  precious 
and  valuable,  after  all,  as  to  justify  the  tearing  up  and 
down  the  country  of  droves  of  people  at  breakneck 
speed,  in  nervous  haste  to  overtake  and  find  rest  and 


FEET  ADAPTED    TO    WORK 


327 


recreation,  and  a  locality  where  there  are  two -minute 
horses  and  no  Sabbath. 

Fig.  84  represents  the  exact  shape  of  the  foot  of  a 
four -year -old  three -fourths  blood  Percheron  mare, 
weighing  1,450 
pounds.  A  mat- 
rix of  the  foot 
was  formed  of 
clay,  and  the 
drawing  was 
made  from  it.  It 
is  a  fine  foot  for 
a  draft  -  horse ; 
the  frog  is  rea- 
sonably high 
and  the  heel 
only  moderately 
wide.  The  shoe 
measures  seven 
inches  from  toe 
to  heel,  and  is 
six  and  one-half 
inches  wide,  and  embraces  an  area  of  a  trifle  more  than 
thirty -seven  square  inches.  Fig.  85,  from  a  photograph, 
is  a  front  view  of  both  feet. 

Fig.  86  was  also  drawn  from  a  clay  impression. 
This  fore  foot  is  most  excellent  in  shape,  and  represents 
that  of  a  mare  sired  by  a  trotting  stallion  out  of  a  fair- 
sized  active  farm -mare.  The  heel  is  proportionately 
narrower  than  that  shown  in  Fig.  84,  and  the  foot  is 
more  rotund  and  is  almost  an  ideal  foot.  The  shoe  is 


FIG.  84.    A  foot  that  will  last  through  life 


328 


THE    HORSE 


five  and  one -half  inches  long  and  five  and  one -half 
inches  wide,  and  embraces  twenty -five  and  nine-tenths 
square  inches  of  area. 

The  foot  of  the  horse  frequently  plays  an  important 
part  in  tillage.    Not  infrequently,  the  horses  are  driven 


FlG.  85.    Two  good  feet  supporting  a  broad  breast 

over  the  field  five  times  in  preparing  the  ground  and  in 
covering  the  seed.  Watching  horses  when  at  work 
plowing  land,  it  was  found  that  the  average  step  was 
four  feet  three  inches,  and  that  most  horses,  when  at 
this  kind  of  work,  set  the  hind  feet  down  a  little  short 
of  the  track  made  by  the  front  feet.  Supposing  this  to 
be  the  case,  and  that  each  foot  of  the  horse  at  each  step 


COMPACTED   AND   LOOSE   GROUND 


329 


covers  and  presses  thirty-one  and  one-half  square 
inches  of  surface,  and  that  two  horses  be  driven  over 
the  plowed  ground  five  times,  in  the  fitting  and  seeding 
of  the  land,  and  that 
the  implement  covers 
an  average  space  of 
five  feet  at  each  pas- 
sage, the  feet  will 
have  compressed  and 
fined  approximately 
five -twelfths  of  the 
acre  of  land.  How- 
ever, some  deduction 
may  be  made,  for  it 
is  probable  that  the 
feet  will  occasionally 
tread  in  a  former 
track.  Usually,  un- 
plowed  ground  is  too  compact  and  plowed  ground  too 
loose  for  the  fullest  growth  of  most  plants,  and  the 
compacting  and  fining  of  the  surface  soil  by  the  horse's 
feet  is  usually  beneficial,  as  far  as  it  goes.  Then,  too, 
many  clods  will  fall  into  the  depressed  tracks  made  by 
the  feet;  as  the  harrow  follows,  the  clods  will  be  drawn 
into  the  depressions  and  crushed  or  covered;  if  covered, 
they  become  softened  and  are  then  fined  by  the  roller  or 
a  second  harrowing.  Sometimes  the  beneficial  effects 
of  the  compacting  by  the  feet  are  marked.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  tramping  may  be  detrimental,  as  when  the 
ground  is  moist  and  the  crop  to  be  raised  does  best  in  a 
loose  soil. 


FIG.  86.    Durable  and  beautiful 


330  THE   HORSE 

SHOEING,  TO   IMPROVE  ACTION 

In  shoeing  horses  with  a  view  to  improving  their 
action,  the  shoes  for  the  fore  feet  are  made  especially 
heavy,  and  the  toes  are  rounded  off  from  the  under 
side  with  the  intention  of  enabling  the  horse  to  lift 
his  feet  as  quickly  and  as  easily  as  possible.  When 
a  horse  thus  shod  feels  the  additional  weight  on  his 
foot,  he  makes  an  increased  effort  to  raise  it  and,  not 
taking  into  account  the  greater  ease  with  which  the  toe 
leaves  the  ground,  he  elevates  the  knee  higher  than  he  has 
been  accustomed  to  do.  Most  horses  are  greatly  benefited 
in  height  of  knee  action  by  heavy  shoes  with  smooth, 
round  toes.  This  plan  works  very  well  with  some  horses, 
possibly  the  majority,  but  with  others  it  causes  them  to 
forge  or  overreach;  because,  as  the  toe  begins  to  leave 
the  ground,  the  toe  of  the  smooth,  rounded  shoe  slips 
backward  and  the  horse  forges, — not  as  in  the  case  above 
referred  to,  where  the  hind  foot  strikes  the  iron  of  the 
front  foot  before  the  latter  can  get  out  of  the  way,  but 
because  the  fore  foot  slips  backward  and  in  reality  forges 
with  the  iron  of  the  hind  foot  as  it  is  going  to  its  place. 

Hock  action  in  some  horses  is  benefited  by  similar 
treatment,  and,  again,  by  the  very  opposite.  Some 
horses,  while  they  are  improved  in  the  mere  act  of 
raising  or  lifting  the  knees,  are  thrown  out  of  balance 
by  the  fore  legs  moving  too  fast  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stride;  in  which  case  they  either  shorten  their  gait  or 
"point"  or  "dwell"  with  the  action  of  the  foot  just 
before  it  reaches  the  ground.  So  much  depends  upon  the 
perfect  balancing  of  the  animal,  which  may  be  slightly 


HORSES  THAT  «  PADDLE"  331 

out  of  balance  naturally  to  begin  with,  that  the  question 
of  shoeing  for  the  improvement  of  action  must  be  largely 
one  of  cut  and  try,  and  adaptation  to  the  individual  horse. 
Horses  that  "paddle"  or  "dish"  the  fore  feet  are 
animals  that  either  toe  in  or  do  not  stand  properly  on 
their  legs,  or  whose  legs  are  not  straight.  This  winding 
motion  is  quite  as  objectionable  as  pointing  or  dwelling. 
It  is  also  prevalent  in  broad-chested  horses  that  usually 
have  a  rolling  action  of  the  body,  and,  again,  in  horses 
that  for  the  same  reason  have  the  elbow -joint  crammed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  stride  and  suddenly  liberated 
after  the  foot  is  well  under  way.  Shoeing  such  horses, 
heavy  on  the  inside  of  the  foot  and  especially  toward 
the  heel,  is  in  some  cases  very  beneficial;  in  others, 
the  additional  weight  seems  to  aggravate  the  cause.  As 
a  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  action  follows  weight;  that 
is  to  say,  if  a  horse  follows  too  closely  behind,  so  that 
he  interferes,  the  weight  on  the  outside  of  the  shoe  will 
make  him  step  wider  apart.  If  he  travels  too  wide, 
weighted  shoes  on  the  inside  would  make  him  travel 
closer.  This  is  the  principle,  but,  like  many  other 
principles,  it  has  many  exceptions.  Sometimes  a 
hind  shoe  particularly  long  on  the  outside  answers 
the  purpose,  but  even  then  it  may  be  owing  more 
to  the  additional  weight  of  the  shoe  than  to  the  addi- 
tional length.  This  subject  has  been  treated  some- 
what in  detail,  with  a  view  of  calling  attention  to 
these  matters  and  to  enable  the  novice  to  solve  the 
puzzling  problem  by  his  own  study  and  observations. 
It  may  be  said  that  nearly  all  the  rules  for  shoeing, 
with  the  view  of  correcting  faults  of  conformation  and 


332 


THE    HORSE 


of  improving  action,  are  consistent  only  in  their  unre- 
liability. This  is  because  horses  dish,  point,  interfere 
and  forge  from  many  different  causes;  hence  there  are 
many  men  of  many  minds.  When  an  artist  of  the 
anvil  succeeds  in  making  a  horse  stop  interfering  or 
forging,  he  thinks  he  has  discovered  the  secret  and 
will  forever  after  shoe  every  horse  identically  the  same 
for  the  same  defect.  The  trouble  is  in  the  want  of  abil- 
ity to  discern  the  true  causes  which  produce  the  defect. 


Gypsy  Queen,  a  good  saddler 


CHAPTER   XXI 

STABLES,    SANITATION  AND   PADDOCKS 

EACH  horse  shoulcf  be  provided  in  the  stable  with  at 
least  two  cubic  feet  of  air-space  for  each  pound  of  live 
weight.  Cattle  require  about  one-half  as  much  air-space 
per  unit  of  live  weight.  This  difference  arises  in  part 
from  the  fact  that  both  the  solid  and  the  liquid  voidings 
of  horses  begin  to  ferment  much  quicker  than  do  those 
of  cattle.  Horse  manure  is  hot  and  dry;  cow  manure, 
cold  and  wet.  Horses  are  put  to  exhaustive  work  and 
require  a  full  supply  of  oxygen  in  the  stables,  that  the 
depleted  energy  may  be  quickly  replenished. 

High  ceilings  save  floor  space  and  are  more  satisfac- 
tory than  low  ones,  as  they  give  opportunity  for  light- 
ing and  ventilating.  The  horses'  heads  should  be  turned 
away  from  the  light,  and  hence  from  the  windows. 
Side  lights  are  not  so  objectionable  as  are  those  placed 
in  front  of  the  horse.  All  windows  should  be  arranged 
for  lowering  the  top  sash,  as  well  as  for  raising  the 
bottom  one.  Windows  should  be  numerous  and  tall,  if 
the  ceiling  permits;  if  it  does  not,  sash  hung  near 
the  middle  may  be  made  to  serve  for  both  light  and 
ventilation.  Fig.  87.  The  windows  may  be  furnished 
with  screens;  but,  if  they  are  curtained  and  the  light 
in  the  stable  be  reduced  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  the 
flies  will  be  largely  excluded. 

(333) 


334 


THE    H<  USE 


It  is  seldom  that  too  many  windows  are  placed  in  the 
stable.  All  the  light  that  is  practicable  to  introduce  will 
be  needed  morning  and  evening  in  cloudy  weather 
and  during  the  short  days  of  winter.  It  is  inex- 
pensive to  exclude  some  of  the  light  in  midsummer. 
Many  windows  assist  in  securing  ventilation.  True, 
windows  increase  the  temperature  in  the  daytime 
and  serve  to  radiate  heat 
at  night.  The  worst  possi- 
ble position  for  a  window 
in  a  stable  is  immediate!}7 
in  front  of  and  on  a  level 
with  or  above  that  of  the 
horse's  head.  If  such  win- 
dows be  even  partially 
opened,  dangerous  drafts 
of  air  strike  the  horses  on 
their  most  vulnerable  points 
—  heads  and  eyes.  I  have 
known  two  high  -  priced 
spans  of  coachers  to  be 
seriously  injured  by  drafts 
from  such  windows.  When 
the  stables  were  rearranged 
and  the  horses  placed  with 
their  heads  away  from  the 
outside  wall  arid  light,  the  trouble  ceased.  Most  sizable 
stables  are  arranged  with  a  wide  walk -way  between 
two  rows  of  horses,  the  two  feed  alleys  being  placed  on 
the  outside.  This  arrangement  is  objectionable  for  sev- 
eral reasons.  First,  it  places  the  horses'  heads  toward 


FIG.  87. 
A  swing  window  for  a  stable 


LIGHTING   AND   ARRANGEMENT  335 

the  light;  then  it  masses  all  the  voidings  of  the  animals 
in  the  center  of  the  building  where  good  ventilation 
along  the  floor  cannot  be  easily  secured.  When  the 
arrangement  is  as  shown,  in  Fig.  88,  the  floors  may  be 
ventilated  from  an  outside  opening,  as  previously  de- 
scribed. The  outside  walls  furnish  room  for  the  harness, 
and  at  the  point  where  they  will  dry  more  quickly  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  stable,  unless  a  separate  well- 
ventilated  harness -room  be  provided.  Where  but  few 
horses  are  kept,  the  big  barn  floor  is  frequently  used  for 
the  feed -hall.  This  results  in  placing  the  horses  with 
their  heads  away  from  the  light.  Where  the  stables  are 
thus  arranged,  they  are  likely  to  be  over -ventilated.  To 
overcome  this,  flap  doors  are  hung  at  the  front  of  the 
mangers,  which  may  be  closed  at  night  in  cold  weather. 
The  panes  in  barn  and  stable  windows  should  be  small; 
eight  by  ten  is  a  suitable  size.  Small  window-panes  are 
less  likely  to  be  broken  than  large  ones,  since  the 
numerous  bars  of  the  sash  serve  as  fenders.  Then,  too, 
small  panes  are  more  cheaply  replaced  than  large  ones. 
Where  there  are  several  colts  on  the  farm,  a  cheap 
shelter  should  be  constructed  into  which  the  colts  may 
retire  from  the  hot  sun  when  the  flies  become  trouble- 
some. There  should  be  doors  in  each  end  which  may  be 
left  open  to  secure  a  draft  of  air.  The  door  opening 
may  be  covered  with  large  pieces  of  coarse  material. 
The  animals  soon  learn  to  pass  into  the  structure  and, 
in  doing  so,  brush  off  the  flies.  Inside,  it  is  dark,  as  no 
windows  are  provided,  and  the  colts  are  comfortable 
and  are  not  stamping  the  grass.  In  the  cool  of  the 
evening,  they  go  out  to  graze.  Sometimes  the  structure 


336 


THE    HORSE 


is  made  tall  enough  to  store  hay  in  the  loft,  in  which 
case  the  colts  are  wintered  in  the  building,  being  fed 
but  once  a  day.  Mr.  A.  C.  Chase,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
has  found  this  method  of  rearing  Morgan  colts  mobt 
satisfactory. 

VENTILATION 

Horse  stables  should  be  kept  cooler  in  winter  than 
cow  stables.    The  modern  stable,  like  the  modern  house, 


FIG.  88.    An  ideal  arrangement 

is  usually  kept  much  too  warm  in  winter.  It  is  easier  to 
ventilate  horse  stables  than  cow  stables,  since,  if  the 
introduction  of  an  abundance  of  fresh  air  does  lower 
the  temperature  to  or  even  below  the  freezing  point  at 
times,  no  harm  is  done;  provided,  however,  the  air  is 
admitted  at  many  small  openings.  (See  Blankets,  Chapter 
XV.)  Large  and  few  openings  tend  to  produce  strong 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    VENTILATOR 


337 


and  dangerous  drafts.  If  the  stable  is  planned  simi- 
lar to  the  diagram,  Fig.  88,  the  horizontal  ventilating- 
tube  arrangement  may  be  adopted  as  follows:  Place  a 
box  of  about  ten  inches  by  one  foot  six  inches  flatwise 
against  the  ceiling  and  over  the  hallway  in  front  of  the 
horses.  The  lower  side  of  the  box  and  about 
one -half  of  the  two  sides  should  be  provided 
with  openings,  either  by  means  of  auger  holes 
or  by  placing  slats  lengthwise  one-half  inch 
apart.  Valves  at  the  external  openings  serve 

Straw-mow  over  stable 


STRAW 
CHUTE 


Fm.  89.    A  straw  chute  and  ventilator  combined 

to  prevent  too  rapid  egress  of  air  out  of  the  building,  in 
windy,  cold  weather.  The  straw  chute  may  also  be  used 
in  part  as  a  ventilator.  Fig.  89. 

The  walls  of  the  stable  should  not  be  too  tight,  or 
the  moisture  of  the  dampish  air  in  the  stable  will  con- 
dense on  the  inside  walls.  A  damp  stable  is  very  objec- 
tionable. If  not  enough  fresh  air  enters  the  stables 


338  THE    HORSE 

through  the  many  minute  cracks  of  the  outside  wall, 
the  window- sashes  may  be  raised  and  lowered  to  suit 
the  temperature  and  other  conditions.  Horses  kept  in 
cool  stables  are  healthier,  more  vigorous  and  less  likely 
to  suffer  from  contagious  and  other  diseases  than  are 
those  kept  in  overheated  stables.  However,  if  they  are 
not  blanketed,  their  hair  will  not  be  so  smooth,  short 
and  soft  as  it  would  be  if  they  were  kept  in  warm 
stables, —  that  is,  those  where  the  temperature  seldom 
falls  below  40°  Fahr.,  and  is  usually  between  50°  and 
75°  Fahr.  (See  Blankets,  Chap.  XV.) 

The  decomposition  of  the  excrements,  especially  the 
urine  which  soaks  into  the  floor,  goes  on  more  slowly 
in  cold  than  in  warm  stables;  hence  the  air  in  cool 
stables  is  likely  to  be  purer  and  better  than  in  warm 
ones.  Most  horses  are  subjected  to  many  vicissitudes 
of  weather  while  at  work;  therefore  their  vigor  should 
not  be  reduced,  nor  should  their  skins  be  made  over- 
sensitive, by  being  placed  in  stables  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  so  high  as  to  weaken  appetite  and  relax  the 
system.  (See  Grooming,  Chap.  XV.) 

The  most  unhealthy  stables  I  have  ever  inspected 
were  in  northern  New  York.  They  were  boarded  inside 
and  out  with  first-class  matched  pine  lumber.  The 
windows  were  few  and  closely  fitted.  In  the  winter, 
they  swelled  so  tight,  as  did  also  the  doors,  that  they 
could  neither  be  opened  nor  closed  readily.  The  box- 
stalls  were  nearly  air-tight.  Their  inner  surfaces  were 
saturated  with  condensed  moisture,  and  even  large 
drops  of  water  adhered  to  or  dropped  from  the  ceiling. 
In  two  of  these  barns,  the  ground  feed  was  spoiling  on 


AVOID   DAMPNESS  339 

the  second  floor,  because  of  the  condensed  moisture  and 
the  breath  of  the  animals  in  the  stable.  One  of  these 
barns  was  fitted  with  elaborate,  expensive  and  highly 
recommended  metal  ventilating  appliances.  In  both  of 
these  barns,  icicles  more  than  a  foot  long  depended  in 
many  places  from  the  rafters  and  roof -boards  in  winter. 
We  have  gone  from  the  one  extreme  of  sieve -like 
boarding  and  open  floors  to  the  other  —  air  tight  boxes. 
A  happy  medium  should  be  adopted. 

Unmatched,  surfaced,  vertical,  outside  boarding, 
properly  battened,  supplemented  in  cold  climates  with 
inside,  unmatched  but  jointed  covering,  will  be  ample 
protection  from  the  cold  and  wind,  except,  perhaps, 
in  extremely  exposed  localities.  If  added  protection 
is  needed,  the  space  between  the  two  boardings,  which 
may  be  about  one  foot  apart,  may  be  filled  with  cut 
straw  or  chaff.  A  dry  wall,  through  which  the  air 
passes  slowly  and  upon  which  little  or  no  moisture  will 
condense,  is  secured,  and  a  much  more  satisfactory  one 
than  can  be  constructed  with  matched  lumber  and 
building-paper.  In  rare  cases,  even  with  such  a  wall, 
the  dampness  in  the  stable,  in  extreme  cold  weather 
when  doors  and  windows  are  closed,  may  be  too  great. 
If  so,  cut  several  small  openings  near  the  floor  and  pro- 
vide them  with  fine  wire -screen  covers  and  a  drop -lid 
for  closing  them  when  they  admit  too  much  air,  and 
place  one  or  more  ventilating  tubes  at  right  angles  to  the 
one  already  described  above.  In  any  case,  cold  air  is  bet- 
ter than  over -moist  air.  The  air  can  now  be  directed 
into  and  out  of  the  stable  without  creating  drafts  or 
depositing  moisture.  The  simplest  and  most  direct  way 


340  THE    HORSE 

of  managing  air  in  stable  or  house  is  usually  the  most 
satisfactory;  since  the  air  is  likely  to  be  acted  upon 
by  pressure  and  counter- pressure  currents,  and  contrac- 
tion and  expansion,  the  best  planned  complex  system  too 
often  utterly  fails.  Warm  air  will  carry  more  moisture 
than  cold  air.  If,  then,  cold,  dryish  air  be  introduced 
into  the  stable  near  the  floor,  or  mid- way  between  floor 
and  ceiling,  and  is  then  warmed  by  the  heat  of  the  ani- 
mals, it  will  take  up  the  moisture  as  thrown  off  by 
respiration,  and,  as  the  air  becomes  warmer,  it  will 
become  lighter  and  rise  where  it  will  find  easy  egress 
out  of  the  stable,  either  at  one  end  or  one  side,  through 
the  perforated  box  at  the  ceiling.  At  which  point  it 
escapes  will  depend  upon  the  pressure  or  the  direction 
of  the  wind.  Moist  and  vitiated  air,  like  house  sewage, 
should  be  removed  by  the  straightest,  quickest,  simplest 
and  most  direct  route. 

MANURES 

A  good  and  convenient  arrangement,  though  not  by 
any  means  the  best,  is  to  provide  a  covered  yard 
beneath  the  stable,  into  which  the  excrements  may  be 
thrown  for  temporary  storage.  In  such  an  arrangement, 
the  danger  is  that  the  basement  story  will  be  built 
largely  under  ground  and  be  too  low.  If  so,  it  cannot 
be  suitably  lighted  and  ventilated.  If  properly  con- 
structed, and  the  floor  above  is  made  tight  and  the 
manure  is  cared  for  as  it  should  be,  such  arrangement 
will  be  fairly  satisfactory.  If  a  lower  story  (not  a 
cellar)  is  used  for  the  temporary  storage  of  the  manures 


ABSORBENTS  AND   DEODORIZERS 


341 


and  for  temporary  shelter  for  farm  implements  in  the 
summer,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  manure 
from  heating.  Horse  excrements,  if  unmixed  with 
those  of  the  cows,  should  be  thoroughly  wet  from  time 
to  time  and,  if  convenient,  solidified  by  the  tramping  of 
animals.  Some  salt  may  be  used  on  the  manure,  a 
quart  for  each  load.  This  will  retard  heating  arid  dis- 


FiG.  90.    There  are  better  ways  than  this 

courage  the  flies  from  breeding  in  the  manure.  Dry 
earth,  or  better  gypsum,  should  be  sprinkled  daily  on 
the  floors  of  the  stables  where  they  are  damp.  One 
quart  of  fine  dry  earth,  or  half  that  much  of  gypsum  will 
be  sufficient  for  each  stall.  By  such  treatment,  sanita- 
tion will  be  promoted  and  the  manures  be  conserved. 
Gypsum  is  better  than  dry  earth  in  the  stables,  since 
it  acts  not  only  as  an  absorbent  and  disinfectant,  but, 
when  the  manure  is  applied  to  the  land,  the  gypsum 


342  THE    HORSE 

helps  to  make  the  potash  in  the  soil  available.  But  no 
stable  treatment  will  conserve  manures  when  thrown  out 
under  the  eaves.  Fig.  90  shows  the  worst  possible 
disposition  that  can  be  made  of  a  valuable  product 
from  the  stable.  The  manure  from  the  horse  stable, 
in  any  case,  should  be  carefully  husbanded,  since  the 
amount,  including  bedding,  usually  reaches  six  to  eight 
tons  per  horse  per  year.  The  value  per  day  of  the  excre- 
ments ranges  from  three  to  five  cents  and  from  ten  to 
fifteen  dollars  per  year,  per  horse,  provided  the  horses 
are  in  the  stables  the  greater  part  of  the  time.  (See 
"Fertility  of  the  Land.")  If  means  justify,  a  lean-to  or 
a  separate  small  building  may  be  constructed  for  tem- 
porary storage  of  manures;  in  which  case  they  may 
have  to  be  transported  daily  to  the  storage  building. 
Swine  or  cattle  may,  in  some  cases,  be  allowed  to  roam 
over  the  manure  for  a  portion  of  each  day  in  the  winter 
with  benefit  to  the  manure  and  to  the  animals. 

FLOORS,    STALLS   AND   MANGERS 

Sometimes  horses  may  be  placed  on  the  second  floor 
above  a  covered  yard,  or  above  other  animals.  In  any 
case,  the  stable  floor  should  be  water-tight.  Wooden 
floors,  all  things  considered,  are  usually  the  best;  but 
conditions  may  be  such  as  to  justify  the  use  of  other 
materials.  Brick,  cement  and  stone  floors  are  somewhat 
objectionable  for  the  following  reasons, —  they  are  hard 
for  the  horses  to  stand  upon,  are  slippery,  and,  if  bed- 
ding is  not  abundant,  are  damp,  and  they  absorb  the 
heat  of  the  horse  when  it  is  lying  down.  A  good,  tight 
stable  floor  may  be  made  as  follows  (Fig.  91) : 


FLOOR   CONSTRUCTION 


343 


Lay  an  unmatched  rough  inch  floor,  C;  upon  this 
place  strong  tarred  building  paper,  B,  with  joints  well 
lapped.  Saw  and  prepare  the  two -inch  planks  which 
are  to  form  the  floor,  A.  For  every  four  hundred 
square  feet  of  floor,  procure  one  barrel  of  Trinidad 


FIG.  91.     Making  a  barn  floor 

asphalt  and  three  gallons  of  gas -tar.  A  large  iron 
kettle  may  be  used  for  heating  and  mixing  the  material, 
which  should  be  in  proportion  of  about  one  to  ten. 
With  an  axe  remove  the  barrel,  and  chop  off  and 
place  in  the  kettle  pieces  of  asphalt  until  it  is  not  much 
more  than  one -half  full,  then  add  the  due  proportion 
of  gas -tar.  The  kettle  should  be  placed  in  a  rude  arch 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  building.  By  means  of 
a  slow  fire,  heat  the  material.  If  by  chance  the  material 
should  take  fire  invert  the  kettle.  When  all  is  ready,  dip 
the  hot  mixture  into  a  galvanized  iron  pail  and  pour  it 
in  a  small  stream  on  the  paper,  spreading  it  to  the 
width  of  the  plank  intended  to  be  laid,  by  means  of  a 
shingle  or  paddle.  Lay  the  plank  in  the  hot  material, 
being  careful  that  when  it  is  spiked  down  the  hot 
asphalt  does  not  fly  into  the  face.  Then  proceed  to 


344  THE    HORSE 

lay  other  planks  in  like  manner.  Finally  pour  some  of 
the  material  into  the  cracks,  if  there  should  be  any.1 

Should  the  floor  become  worn  in  time  and  need 
repairing,  even  up  the  surface  by  spreading  thin  cement 
mortar  upon  it,  and  upon  this  lay  a  second  plank  floor. 
The  cement  mortar  will  assist  in  making  the  floor  water- 
tight and  in  preventing  dry  rot.  Barn  floors  which 
have  become  worn  from  driving  over  them  may  be 
treated  in  like  manner. 

When  the  second  floor  is  laid  on  the  first  (when  it 
becomes  worn),  a  portion  of  the  stall  may  be  provided 
with  a  removable  grating,  which  will  measurably  pre- 
vent the  horse  from  becoming  soiled.  This  is  objection- 
able in  some  respects,  because  the  horse  must  be 
removed  and  the  grating  lifted  if  the  stable  is  made 
clean.  After  having  tried  several  methods,  and  ob- 
served many,  for  caring  for  and  removing  the  liquid 
voidings,  I  know  of  none  better  than  to  absorb 
them  by  use  of  chaff  or  straw  bedding  of  various  kinds 
placed  just  ahead  of  the  cleat  shown  in  Fig.  89.  The 
planks  of  the  floor  of  the  stall  should  be  laid  at  right 
angles  to  those  of  the  rear  walk- way  and  two  inches 
higher,  their  rear  ends  lapping  upon  the  plank  walk 
two  to  four  inches.  The  planks  upon  which  the  animals 
stand  are  not  infrequently  laid  with  a  fall  from  front 
to  rear  of  two  to  three  inches.  Such  a  floor  is  cruel  to 
the  horse  and  does  not  promote  cleanliness.  One  inch 
fall  in  six  feet  is  sufficient.  Horses  when  worked  hard, 
if  left  free  in  the  field,  seek  to  place  the  heels  of  their 
feet,  especially  their  front  ones,  higher  than  their  toes 

1 A  floor  laid  as  described,  eighteen  years  ago,  is  still  in  good  repair. 


FEEDING   ARRANGEMENTS  345 

and  their  front  parts  lower  than  their  hind  parts.  By 
so  doing  they  rest  the  back  tendons  and  the  back  side 
of  their  legs,  the  parts  which  are  subjected  to  the 
greatest  strain  when  at  work;  hence  a  floor  which  has 
a  marked  rearward  fall  is  objectionable.  Sizable  farm- 
horses  should  have  stalls  ranging  from  five  to  six 
feet  wide,  since  the  stables  are  cleaned,  horses  groomed 
and  harnessed  without  moving  them  from  their  stalls. 

The  box  for  feeding  grain  should  be  large,  made  of 
hard  wood  with  level,  broad  bottom.  The  edges  of  the 
box  and  the  strong  bars  placed  in  front  and  at  the  rear 
of  the  feed -bunk  would  be  better  covered  with  band- 
iron.  That  part  of  the  manger  designed  for  hay  is 
usually  too  large,  that  for  receiving  the  grain  too 
small.  Horses  are  inclined  to  eat  their  grain  too  fast. 
A  large  flat-bottomed  grain -box  tends  to  make  them 
eat  slowly,  and  hence  to  insalivate  their  food.  Horses 
are  usually  fed  too  much  hay.  If  the  manger  is  large, 
it  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  attendant  from  over -feeding, 
unless  he  is  required  to  weigh  eaeh  horse's  hay  ration, 
a  thing  usually  impracticable. 

The  hay  should  not  be  thrown  from  an  upper  story 
directly  into  the  manger,  no  matter  what  kind  it  is, 
neither  should  it  be  thrown  direct  from  the  mow  in 
front  of  the  horse,  but  into  a  small  room  separated  by 
a  door  from  the  stable  proper.  This  room  should  be 
large  enough  to  permit  of  the  hay  being  shaken  up  and 
sprinkled  with  water  when  occasion  requires.  Neither 
should  the  bedding  be  thrown  down  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  cover  the  harness  and  horses  with  dust. 

Fig.   89    shows    a   straw   chute    constructed   on    the 


346  THE  HORSE 

outside  of  the  stable  but  opening  into  the  straw -mow 
above  and  into  the  stable  below.  The  -door,  shown  by 
dotted  line,  is  hung  by  means  of  weights,  moves  per- 
pendicularly, and  is  closed  when  the  bedding  is  being 
thrown  into  the  chute  and  opened  when  the  bedding  is 
being  removed  to  the  several  stalls.  The  chute  may 
also  be  used  as  a  ventilator. 

PADDOCKS 

A  few  paddocks,  or  better,  small  fields,  should  be 
provided  near  the  barn  for  the  dams  and  foals  and 
other  horses  on  occasion.  They  should  be  provided  in 
any  case  if  live  stock  is  being  raised.  The  enclosure 
should  be  large  enough  to  allow  of  some  pasturage. 
Paddocks  are  usually  so  small  that  the  grass  is 
destroyed  by  the  tramping  of  the  animals.  Not  only 
will  such  small  fields  serve  to  separate  the  dam  and 
foal  from  other  livestock,  but  they  may  be  made  the 
means  of  advertising  the  fact  that  good  animals  are 
being  reared,  provided  they  are  suitably  located.  They 
should,  where  possible,  be  in  sight  of  the  front  veranda 
and  abut  on  the  public  highway,  that  the  passer-by 
may  linger  to  see  and  be  persuaded  to  purchase.  Such 
fields  and  the  colts  are  to  the  breeder  what  plate -glass 
windows  and  their  display  are  to  the  merchant.  The 
merchant  never  puts  his  finest  goods  in  the  back  end 
of  the  store,  or  where  they  cannot  be  seen  readily. 
Increase  the  productivity  of  the  large  fields,  and  then 
these  small  fields  will  not  be  missed  when  laid  down  in 
permanent  pastures  and  used  for  displaying  the  best 
animals. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


LINE    OF  DRAFT,     WEIGHT   OF  HORSES  AND   WAGOb 
TIRES 

IT  is  not  enough  to  have  good  horses  well  nourished; 
their  powers  should  be  directed  along  most  efficient 
lines.  Figure  92  illustrates  how  one  span  may  lift 
and  roll  out  of  its  resting  place  a  stone  so  large  that 
it  may  require  three  spans  of  animals  to  draw  it  when 
placed  on  a  stone  -boat.  However,  oxen  are  better 
than  horses  for  this  purpose.  If  it  is  desired  to  haul  a 
heavy  log  for  a  short  distance,  the  chain  is  attached  at 
the  lowest  point,  or  under  the  side  of  the  log.  In  some 
of  the  old  English 
works  on  plowing 
(Fig.  93),  the  line 
of  draft  is  repre- 
sented as  starting  at 
the  center  of  resist- 
ance, thence  running  - 

.    -,  ,       v 

in    a    straight     line 

through  the   device 

at    the    end    of    the 

beam,    and   ending 

where  the  traces  are  attached  to  the  hames.    The  Ameri- 

can plowman  uses  short  traces,  which  results  in  bend- 

ing the  line  of   draft  upwards,   thus   diminishing   the 

(347) 


FJG  92    Energy 


directed. 


348 


THE   HORSE 


friction  of  the  sole 
of  the  plow.  (Fig. 
94.)  The  bent  line 
of  draft  tends,  of 
course,  to  raise  the 
plow  out  of  the 
ground,  but  this  is 
overcome  by  giving 
the  point  of  the 
§  plow  a  little  more 
|  pitch.  It  is  often 
®  observed  by  farm- 
|  ers  that  tall  horses 
appear  to  plow  with 
less  effort  than  low 
ones.  This  is  no 
doubt  a  fact,  since 
the  line  of  draft  is 
bent  more  by  the 
tall  horses  than  by 
the  low  ones. 
Horsemen  all  know 
that  teams  are 
most  efficient  in 
moving  heavy  loads 
when  hitched  close 
to  them.  The  rea- 
sons for  this  may 
be  found  in  the 
greater  bend  of  the 
line  of  draft  and  in 


TRACTION  AND    FRICTION 


349 


ihe  greater  traction  power 
of  the  animals.  In  other 
words,  the  closer  the  horses 
are  to  their  load,  the  more 
of  the  weight  of  the  load  is 
placed  on  the  horse.  His 
shoulders  not  being  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction 
which  the  load  is  to  take, 
a  part  of  the  load  is  thrown 
upon  the  body  of  the  horse. 
This  relieves  some  of  the 
friction  of  the  load  and 
practically  gives  more 
weight  to  the  horse,  and 
this,  in  turn,  tends  to  hold 
him  to  the  ground  and  in- 
creases his  traction  power. 
In  early  days,  farm  prod- 
ucts and  merchandise  were 
transported  largely  by 
teams  of  four  or  more 
horses.  The  smallest  horse 
was  put  on  the  nigh  (left- 
hand)  side  of  the  pole 
(tongue).  The  pole  horses 
were  not  called  on  to  do 
their  full  share  of  the  work 
where  the  roads  were  good, 
but  were  kept  in  part  as  a 
reserve.  When  a  supreme 


350  THE  HORSE 

effort  bad  to  be  made,  the  driver  leaped  on  to  the  little 
horse,  when,  for  a  short  time,  by  reason  of  his  added 
weight,  he  was  nearly  equal  in  draft  power  to  the  larger 
horse. 

Low-wheeled  wagons  are  becoming  somewhat  com- 
mon on  the  farm;  they  should  become  more  common, 
although  they  run  harder,  other  things  being  equal, 
than  wagons  with  wheels  of  standard  size.  However, 
the  length  of  haul  on  the  farm  is  so  short  that  the 
increase  of  draft  due  to  the  small  wheels  may  be 
ignored,  especially  since  human  physical  energy  is  far 
more  expensive  than  horse  energy.  It  is  not  economical 
to  lift  heavy  material  unnecessarily  high  for  the  pur- 
pose of  easing  the  horses,  or  for  the  fun  of  throwing 
the  material  down  again.  Farm -wagons  should  have, 
as  a  rule,  wide  tires,  although,  under  some  circum- 
stances, they  increase  the  draft  over  narrow -tired  ones 
seriously.  Wagons  with  wide  tires  run  easier  on  hard 
pavements,  be  they  smooth,  as  of  brick  or  asphalt,  or 
roughish,  as  when  constructed  of  stone.  But  on  dirt 
roads  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  stiff  mud, 
the  wide -tired  wagon  is  a  "horse -killer,"  or  so  pro- 
nounced to  be  by  good  teamsters.  The  use  of  wide- 
tired  wagons  tends  to  prolong  the  life  of  the  good 
road;  but  this  is  no  reason  why  wide -tired  wagons 
should  be  used  at  the  expense  of  horse-flesh  to  improve 
dirt  roads  which  become  "villainous"  every  spring  and 
fall.  Narrow  tires  push  away  and  cut  through  the  mud 
and  find  a  hard  bottom.  Wide  tires  push  down  and 
climb  over  the  mud,  and  by  so  doing  the  draft  is 
increased. 


HIGH  AND   LOW  ATTACHMENT  351 

When  horses  are  used  for  draft  purposes  on  pave- 
ments, their  weight  becomes  a  factor  of  prime  impor- 
tance. Manifestly,  it  is  not  convenient  in  great  cities 
(especially  American  cities)  to  hitch  several  horses  to 
one  wagon.  Fortunately,  most  of  our  streets  are  wide 
enough  to  permit  of  two  being  driven  abreast,  and, 
when  so  driven,  they  are  most  efficient  in  backing  a 
load.  On  pavements,  horses  get  but  a  precarious  foothold 
for  pulling.  On  moderately  soft  ground,  they  are  able, 
by  placing  the  feet  well  back,  to  bring  the  soles  of  the 
feet  at  an  angle  of  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  from  the 
horizontal,  or  the  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  load. 
On  the  smooth  pavements,  no  such  advantage  can  be 
taken,  and  here  efficiency  of  draft  depends  largely  on 
the  weight  of  the  horse.  If,  then,  friction  on  the 
pavement  becomes  so  important,  can  the  line  of  draft 
be  so  adjusted  as  to  increase  it?  It  is  evident  that  if 
the  point  of  attachment  to  the  load  be  low,  the  friction 
of  the  feet  of  the  horse  on  the  pavement  will  be 
increased;  if  the  point  of  attachment  be  high,  it  will 
be  diminished.  Therefore  the  doubletrees  should  be 
placed  in  a  supporting  iron  under  the  tongue  of  the 
wagon,  especially  if  the  wagon  has  low  front  wheels 
and  is  used  for  heavy  traffic.  The  farther  back  the 
doubletrees  are  placed,  and  the  shorter  the  traces, 
the  more  pronounced  will  be  the  angle  of  draft  and 
the  greater  the  traction  power. 

A  horse  weighing  1,500  pounds  when  tested,  by 
placing  the  attachment  to  the  load  but  six  inches  from 
the  ground,  was  able  to  pull  2,310  pounds  as  measured 
by  dynamometer.  When  he  was  attached  to  the  load  at 


352  THE  HORSE 

the  height  of  two  feet,  he  was  able  to  pull  1,980  pounds. 
When  attached  at  a  height  of  three  feet,  he  was  able 
to  pull  1,732  pounds. 

When  horses  are  attached  to  light  vehicles  where 
light  draft,  rapid  movement,  safety  and  beauty  are 
desired,  the  point  of  attachment  to  the  vehicle  should 
be  high.  Horses  used  for  light  work  are  often  "frisky," 
and  they  may  get  over  the  traces  if  they  are  hitched 
low. 

When  driving  a  single  horse  to  a  light  sleigh,  he 
should  be  placed  immediately  in  front  of  it,  if  he  is  to 
be  driven  only  in  the  city.  In  the  country,  the  horse 
is  attached  in  front  of  the  right-hand  runner,  that  he 
may  travel  in  the  right-hand  beaten  track.  In  the 
United  States,  the  law  directs  that,  when  teams  meet, 
they  shall  turn  to  the  right;  in  most  European  coun- 
tries, teams  meeting  turn  to  the  left,  which  is  far  safer 
and  more  convenient.  The  awkward  American  custom 
is  due  without  doubt  to  the  almost  universal  use  of 
oxen  in  the  pioneer  days.  Since  oxen  are  driven  by 
walking  on  the  left  side  of  them,  it  is  most  convenient 
to  turn  to  the  right.  The  driver  of  horses  sits  on  the 
right;  logically,  he  should  turn  to  the  left. 

We  now  come  to  another  method  of  attaching 
horses  to  two -wheeled  vehicles,  which  first  became 
common  in  London  and  later,  happily,  was  introduced 
into  some  of  our  American  cities.  The  hansom -cub  is  a 
light  two -wheeled  covered  carriage  with  the  driver's 
seat  elevated  behind,  the  reins  being  passed  over  the 
top.  It  is  so  balanced  on  the  axle  that,  when  loaded 
with  one  or  two  passengers  and  driver,  the  tendency 


DRAFT  LIGHT,   ATTACHMENT  HIGH 


353 


is  for  the  shafts  (thills)  to  rise.  This  tendency  is  pre- 
vented by  a  wide,  padded  belly-band.  This  method  of 
attachment  practically  transfers  a  part  of  the  weight 
of  the  front  end  of  the  horse  to  the  axle,  and  this 
results  in  great  gain,  as  it  relieves  some  of  the  con- 
cussion of  the  horse's  front  feet  on  the  pavement. 
Since  the  draft  of  the  load  is  light,  the  horse  can  well 
spare  some  of  this  weight,  and  this  may  result  in  pre- 
serving the  soundness  of  the  front  feet.  Many  times, 
horses  with  front  feet  slightly  affected  are  used  in 
hansoms;  because  there  is  opportunity  to  relieve  some 
of  the  pain  due  to  slight  unsoundness. 


FiG.  y5.    Saves  front  feet  of  horse. 


APPENDIX  I 

THE   BREEDING   IN   CANADA    OF  HORSES   FOR 
ARMY    USE 

By  the  kindness  of  J.  G.  RUTHERFORD,  Chief  Veterinary 
Inspector 

WHILE  the  supply  of  horses  suitable  for  military  use  has 
always,  even  in  times  of  peace,  been  a  serious  question,  the 
experience  of  our  South  African  troubles  has  given  it  an  impor- 
tance altogether  new  and  somewhat  startling.  It  has  now  been 
clearly  shown  that  troops  under  modern  conditions  of  warfare 
must  be  able  to  move  rapidly  from  place  to  place,  and  that  the 
mounted  soldier  has  thus  an  immense  advantage  over  the  less 
mobile  infantry  man. 

This  development  has  led  to  the  purchase  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment, during  the  present  campaign,  of  a  very  much  larger 
number  of  horses  than  would  otherwise  have  been  required.  Nor 
has  the  lesson  been  learned  by  Britain  alone;  all  military  nations 
have  been  closely  watching  the  operations  in  South  Africa,  and 
there  is  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  general  demand  for  horses 
suitable  for  army  purposes  will  be  much  greater  in  the  future 
than  in  the  past.  Of  the  horses  purchased  for  use  in  Africa 
the  Dominion  has  by  no  means  furnished  her  fair  share,  although, 
in  addition  to  those  taken  by  our  own  contingents,  a  considerable 
number  have  been  picked  up  in  Eastern  Canada  by  Lt.-Col.  Dent, 
of  the  Eemount  Department  of  the  British  Army.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, an  easy  matter  at  present  to  obtain  in  this  country  any  large 
number  of  horses  altogether  suitable  for  army  use.  No  encourage- 
ment to  produce  them  has,  until  very  recently,  been  shown  to 
breeders,  and,  there  being  no  very  active  home  demand  for  any 
but  the  very  best  of  the  sorts  now  asked  for,  they  have  not  beeji 
bred  to  anything  like  the  extent  of  which  the  country  is  capable. 

(354) 


APPENDIX    I  355 

After  the  visit  of  Colonel  Ravenhill  in  1887,  the  western  ranchers, 
in  expectation  of  a  market,  went  to  much  trouble  and  expense  in 
securing  and  importing  suitable  foundation  stock,  and  as  a  result 
were  successful  in  producing  many  first-class  cavalry-horses.  As, 
however,  beyond  a  limited  number  taken  by  the  Northwest 
Mounted  Police  and  a  few  by  foreign  buyers,  there  was  no  sale 
for  them  as  such,  the  breeders  have  largely  turned  their  attention 
to  other  and,  under  the  circumstances,  more  profitable  lines  of 
stock. 

The  natural  conditions  in  Canada  are,  it  need  hardly  be  said, 
most  favorable  for  the  production  of  the  animals  wanted,  while 
in  the  event  of  serious  international  disturbance  Canadian  horses 
would  always  be  available  for  Imperial  use,  while  it  might  be 
impossible  to  procure  them  in  foreign  countries.  Again,  through 
the  medium  of  our  great  trans-continental  railway  they  could  be 
shipped  from  either  Atlantic  or  Pacific  ports  to  any  part  of  the 
world  where  they  might  be  required. 

In  view  of  the  strong  probability  that  the  demand  hitherto 
lacking  will  in  the  future  be  such  as  to  warrant  the  breeding  in 
fair  numbers  of  the  horses  needed  for  military  use,  a  brief 
description  of  those  now  being  sought  for  and  purchased  by  the 
agents  of  the  British  war  office,  and  a  few  hints  as  to  how  they 
may  be  produced,  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

They  are  of  three  fairly  distinct  types  as  required  for  artillery, 
cavalry  and  mounted  infantry. 

At  the  Canadian  horse -show  held  in  Toronto  in  April;  1900, 
the  Dominion  Government  gave  special  prizes  for  each  of  these 
classes,  and  as  Lt.-Col.  Dent,  the  Imperial  remount  officer 
detailed  to  purchase  in  Canada,  was  one  of  the  judges,  thus 
making  the  selections  authoritative,  a  description  of  each  first 
prize  animal,  together  with  its  measurements,  will  be  appended 
to  the  general  list  of  requirements  in  all  three  divisions. 

THE    ARTILLERY -HORSE 

The  artillery-horse  asked  for  by  the  army  buyers  is  really  a 
smart,  active  van-  or  express-horse  on  short  legs,  with  plenty  of 
bone  and  substance  and  enough  quality  to  ensure  staying  power 


356  THE    HORSE 

in  fairly  fast  work.  He  should  stand  from  fifteen  and  two -tenths 
to  sixteen  hands,  weigh  not  less  than  1,300  pounds,  and  measure  at 
least  eight  inches  below  the  knee  and  seventy-two  inches  in  girth. 
Considerable  variation  in  type  is  permissible,  the  work  of  the 
horse  artillery  demanding  greater  speed  and  therefore  more  warm 
blood  than  are  necessary  for  ordinary  field  artillery,  while  in  all 
batteries  properly  horsed,  the  lead  and  center  pairs  are  slightly 
taller  and  more  rangy  than  the  wheelers,  the  latter  requiring 
greater  strength  and  substance.  The  first  prize  entry  at  Toronto 
last  spring  was  of  the  lighter  sort,  being,  in  fact,  the  pure -bred 
hackney  mare  'Cassandra.'  She  stood  16  hands,  weighed  1,325 
pounds  and  girthed  76  inches.  She  measured  8%  inches  below 
the  knee  and  20%  inches  round  the  arm ;  from  crest  to  withers  36 
inches,  withers  to  croup  29  inches,  croup  to  tail,  an  important 
point  in  all  military  horses,  19  inches.  Although  in  this  particu- 
lar instance  the  prize  went  to  a  hackney,  it  does  not,  by  any 
means,  follow  that  gun -horses  should  be  either  wholly  or  partly 
of  that  breed.  They  may  be  obtained  by  the  judicious  use  of  the 
thoroughbred  horse  on  mares  of  size,  substance  and  action,  or  by 
stinting  good  half-bred  or  strong  roadster  mares  to  a  biggish 
hackney  or  breedy  coach  sire.  So  long  as  they  show  sufficient 
quality  to  ensure  activity  and  endurance,  and  at  the  same  time 
meet  the  requirements  as  to  size  and  substance,  the  question  of 
pedigree  is  of  secondary  importance. 

THE   CAVALRY -HORSE 

The  cavalry-horse  is  of  a  somewhat  different  type,  and  one  at 
present  too  rare  in  Canada,  owing  to  the  preference  shown  by 
many  light  horse  breeders  for  the  American  trotting  sire,  an  ani- 
mal possessing  but  few  of  the  qualities  and  characteristics  of  the 
riding  horse. 

Colonel  Ravenhill,  in  his  report,  says: — "A  malformation  in  the 
Canadian  horses  which  might  advantageously  be  brought  to  the 
notice  of  breeders  is  that  their  quarters  are  short  and  very  droop- 
ing, a  serious  defect  in  a  military  horse.  Indeed,  we  had  to  reject 
as  unsuitable  a  considerable  proportion  on  this  account  j  this  is 


APPENDIX    I  357 

not  only  a  great  dissight,  but  where  a  mounted  soldier  has  to 
carry  a  kit  on  his  horse's  back  it  amounts  to  an  insuperable 
objection;  it  has  arisen  from  the  too  extensive  use  of  the  Ameri- 
can trotter  for  stud  purposes,  this  defect  being  very  apparent  in 
that  horse.  This  is  an  additional  reason  for  the  more  continuous 
introduction  of  the  English  thoroughbred,  or  such  horses  as  are 
very  straight  in  their  backs  and  quarters,  with  tail  set  high." 

To  get  good  cavalry -horses  the  thoroughbred  sire  is  almost 
indispensable,  as  in  no  other  way  can  the  lengthy  rein,  sloping 
shoulder,  deep  chest,  strong  loin  and  long  quarter,  so  necessary  in 
this  class,  be  obtained  with  any  certainty  or  regularity.  Freedom 
of  movement  is  essential,  but  high  action  and  great  trotting  speed 
are  neither  required  nor  wanted.  Horses  of  this  class  should 
stand  not  less  than  15.1  nor  more  than  15.3,  and  should  measure 
at  least  8  inches  below  the  knee  and  70  inches  in  girth. 

The  first  prize  at  Toronto  was  taken  by  a  brown  gelding  named 
"General,"  said  to  be  by  a  thoroughbred  horse.  He  was  a  remark- 
able well-proportioned  weight  carrier  of  considerable  length  and 
great  substance.  His  measurements  were  as  follows:  Height 
15.3,  cannon  bone  8  inches,  arm  21  inches,  crest  to  withers  37 
inches,  withers  to  croup  33  inches,  croup  to  tail  15  inches,  girth 
74  inches. 

Horses  of  this  stamp  can  best  be  procured  by  the  use  of 
selected  thoroughbred  sires  on  strong  half-bred  mares,  on  the 
better  class  of  roadster  mares,  or  on  mares  from  hackney  or  coach 
sires,  provided  they  show  some  blood  and  quality.  On  mares  hav- 
ing a  preponderance  of  warm  blood  or  those  showing  any  inclina- 
tion to  weediness,  a  good  hackney  horse  might  be  advantageously 
used. 

THE   MOUNTED  INFANTRY -HORSE 

The  mounted  infantry-horse,  for  which  such  an  unprecedented 
demand  has  recently  arisen,  and  which  is  likely  to  be  even  more 
sought  after  if  present  war  conditions  continue  to  prevail,  is  a 
smaller  and  cheaper  animal  than  either  of  those  already  described. 
He  is,  in  fact,  a  cob,  a  strong  pony  on  short  legs,  with  as  much 
quality  as  can  consistently  be  looked  for  in  conjunction  with  the 


358  THE    HORSE 


substance  required  to  carry  an  armed  man.  He  must  have  a  fair 
shoulder  and  a  good  back,  be  deep  through  the  heart  and  stand 
squarely  on  good  legs  well  furnished  with  bone.  In  height  he  may 
be  from  14.1  to  15.1,  but  14.3  is  the  favorite  standard  with 
Lt.-Col.  Dent.  Strength  is  the  great  desideratum,  but  a  reason- 
able amount  of  activity  is  indispensable. 

The  little  horse  "Hero"  which  took  first  prize  in  Toronto,  stood 
15.1,  measured  7%  inches  below  the  knee  and  19%  around  the 
arm;  from  crest  to  withers  he  was  34  inches,  withers  to  croup  27 
inches,  croup  to  tail  15  inches.  He  girthed  73  inches  and,  as  the 
measurements  show,  was  an  excellent  type  of  the  weight-carrying 
cob.  Such  horses  can  be  obtained  by  a  stout  thoroughbred  sire 
from  French  Canadian  or  other  strong  pony  mares,  or  by  the 
judicious  use  of  the  hackney  horse  on  the  smaller  roadsters  and 
on  those  little  mares  too  common  in  Canada,  resulting  from  the 
ill-advised  use  of  the  racing  or  rather  sprinting  type  of  thorough- 
bred on  light  mares  of  trotting  blood  or  other  mixed  breeding. 


GENERAL     REQUIREMENTS 

In  time  of  peace  no  horses  are  bought  at  less  than  four  nor 
more  than  seven  years  old. 

As  regards  color,  bays,  browns,  chestnuts  and  blacks  are 
preferred;  a  few  grays  are  required  for  special  corps,  but  odd- 
colored  horses  are  not  wanted. 

No  unsound  or  seriously  blemished  horse  will  be  taken;  the 
veterinary  examination  is  fairly  strict  but  is  also  strictly  fair. 
Undocked  horses  are  preferred,  and  no  horse  with  a  very  short 
docked  tail  will  be  taken. 

In  time  of  war,  however,  when  the  demand,  as  a  rule,  exceeds 
the  available  supply,  purchasing  officers  overlook  many  minor 
defects,  provided  the  animals  offered  are  sound  and  serviceable, 
while  conforming  generally  to  the  requirements  of  the  service. 


APPENDIX    I  359 


ADVICE    TO   BREEDERS 

Breeders  011  the  western  ranges  will,  no  doubt,  find  it  profit- 
able from  this  time  forward,  to  devote  considerable  attention  to 
the  production  of  horses  especially  adapted  for  military  use. 

In  the  other  portions  of  the  Dominion  the  supply  of  such 
horses  can  be  enormously  increased  with  but  little  extra  effort  or 
expense  on  the  part  of  the  breeder. 

Immense  numbers  of  light  horses  and  ponies  are  annually  bred 
in  Canada  of  which  many  when  grown  are,  owing  to  their  non- 
descript character,  of  but  little  value.  If  the  breeders  of  these 
animals  would  send  their  lighter  mares  to  pure-bred  stallions,  of 
the  British  breeds,  intelligently  selected  with  a  view  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  definite  type  of  military  horse,  a  vast  improvement  in 
our  clean-legged  stock  would  speedily  manifest  itself. 

High  prices  would  then,  as  now,  be  easily  obtainable  for  really 
superior  animals;  most  of  the  others  would  find  ready  sale  for 
army  use  as  well  as  for  other  purposes,  while  the  misfits  and  object 
lessons  would  be  less  numerous  and,  except  by  comparison,  not 
less  valuable,  than  they  are  at  present. 

[The  admirable  instructions  for  breeding  army  horses  in  Canada, 
as  set  forth  in  the  previous  pages,  are  applicable  when  applied  to 
breeding  the  same  class  of  horses  in  the  United  States.]— AUTHOR. 

NOTE. — With  horsemen,  the  figures  15.1,  15.3  are  read  fifteen 
hands,  one  inch,  and  fifteen  hands,  three  inches.  See  pp.  356, 
357. 


APPENDIX   II 

COMPUTING   RATIONS  FOB  FARM  ANIMALS 

Prepared  by  JOHN  L.  STONE,  Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

FOR  more  than  a  third  of  a  century,  the  subject  of  feeding  to 
farm  animals  a  "balanced  ration,"  or  one  that  conforms  quite 
closely  to  a  "standard"  that  has  been  fixed  by  carefully  conducted 
experiments  with  the  kind  of  animal  for  which  it  is  recommended, 
has  been  before  American  stock  feeders.  The  general  utility  of 
feeding  standards  is  almost  universally  admitted  by  those  who 
have  given  the  matter  study,  and  the  number  of  feeders  who  are 
endeavoring  to  conform  their  practices  to  the  standards  is  con- 
tinually increasing. 

The  tables  of  feeding  stuffs  and  the  methods  of  using  them 
have  been  much  simplified  of  late  years,  but  judging  by  the  large 
number  of  requests  from  farmers,  received  by  the  agricultural 
papers  and  the  Experiment  Stations,  for  formulas  of  balanced 
rations,  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  inquirers,  the  subject  is  still  too 
complicated,  or  the  labor  involved  too  great,  to  be  readily  accom- 
plished by  the  ordinary  farmer.  It  is  with  a  "riew  of  further 
simplifying  the  computation  of  rations  and  bringing  it  within 
the  range  of  every  feeder  that  the  accompanying  tables  have  been 
prepared.  The  effort  has  been  to  carry  the  computations  as  near 
to  completion  as  possible,  so  that  the  user  will  simply  need  to 
take  from  the  table  the  figures  corresponding  to  the  kinds  and 
amounts  of  the  feeds  used  in  the  proposed  ration  and  add  them 
together,  to  be  able  to  compare  it  with  the  standard.  The  only 
advantage  claimed  for  this  publication  is  that,  by  the  arrangement 
of  the  tables  and  by  the  computations  made,  the  labor  of  formu- 
lating rations  is  very  materially  reduced,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
many  who  have  not  heretofore  attempted  this  work  for  themselves 
will  be  encouraged  to  do  so. 

(360) 


APPENDIX   II  361 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING 

The  various  substances  found  in  animal  bodies  may,  for  con- 
venience, be  grouped  under  four  heads:  water,  ash  or  mineral 
matter,  fat,  and  nitrogenous  matter  or  protein.  These  sub- 
stances occur  in  the  animal  body  in  somewhat  varying  propor- 
tions, depending  upon  age,  condition,  treatment,  etc. 

Water  is  an  essential  constituent  of  the  animal  body  and  con- 
stitutes from  40  to  60  per  cent  of  its  live  weight.  Ash  occurs 
mainly  in  the  bones  and  constitutes  from  2  to  5  per  cent  of 
the  live  weight.  The  fat  occurs  in  greatly  varying  proportions, 
but  rarely  is  less  than  6  or  more  than  30  per  cent.  All 
those  substances  containing  nitrogen  are  classed  as  protein. 
They  constitute  an  important  group,  oi  which  washed  lean  meat 
and  the  white  of  egg  may  be  taken  as  types.  They  contain  about 
16  per  cent  of  the  element  nitrogen  and  are  the  only  class  into 
the  composition  of  which  this  element  enters.  All  the  working 
machinery  of  the  body,  such  as  flesh,  skin,  bones,  hair,  internal 
organs,  brain  and  nerves,  contain  a  large  proportion  of  protein. 

COMPOSITION   OF   FOOD   MATERIALS 

The  same  four  groups  of  substances  found  in  animal  bodies, 
viz. :  water,  ash,  fat  and  protein,  are  also  found  in  the  food  they 
consume  and,  in  addition,  the  food  of  herbivorous  animals  contains 
a  class  called  carbohydrates. 

Water. —  All  foodstuffs,  no  matter  how  dry  they  may  seem, 
contain  a  considerable  amount  of  water.  In  grains  and  dried 
fodders  it  ranges  from  8  to  15  per  cent  of  the  material,  in  green 
forage  and  silage  it  is  about  80  per  cent,  while  in  some  roots  it 
amounts  to  90  per  cent.  While  water  is  essential  to  animal  life 
and  the  water  in  the  food  fulfils  the  same  function  as  that  drunk 
by  the  animal,  we  do  not  value  food  materials  for  the  water  they 
contain,  and  computations  are  based  upon  the  water-free  or  dry 
matter. 

Ash. —  When  a  foodstuff  is  burned  till  the  organic  matter  is  all 
driven  off,  the  residue  is  the  ash.  It  is  composed  largely  of  lime, 


362  THE    HORSE 

magnesia,  potash,  soda,  iron,  chlorine,  and  carbonic,  sulfuric  and 
phosphoric  acids.  The  ash  of  the  food  is  the  source  of  the  mineral 
matter  of  the  animal  body,  and  as  such  is  of  great  importance. 
Ordinary  combinations  of  feeding  stuffs,  however,  contain  an 
abundant  supply  of  mineral  matter  for  the  use  of  the  animal,  so 
it  is  not  a  matter  of  practical  concern  except  as  it  has  a  bearing 
on  the  mineral  elements  of  fertility  in  the  manure. 

Fats. —  This  group  embraces  the  materials  which  may  be  dis- 
solved from  a  feeding  stuff  by  ether.  It  includes,  besides  the 
true  fats,  wax  and  coloring  matter.  Fat  in  the  food  may  be  either 
stored  in  the  body  as  fat,  or  burned  to  produce  heat  and  energy. 

Carbohydrates. —  This  term  includes  two  groups,  nitrogen-free 
extract,  such  as  starch,  sugar,  gum,  etc.,  and  fiber,  or  the  woody 
parts  of  plants.  The  former  are  quite  freely  digested,  the  latter 
much  less  so,  though  fulfilling  the  same  function  to  the  extent  it 
is  digested.  The  carbohydrates  constitute  the  largest  part  of  vege- 
table foods.  They  are  not  stored  in  the  animal  body  as  such,  but 
are  converted  into  fat  or  used  (burned)  to  produce  heat  and 
energy. 

Since  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  serve  nearly  the  same  purpose 
in  the  animal  economy,  they  may,  for  convenience,  be  grouped 
together.  Experiments,  however,  have  shown  that  fat  is  about 
2/^  times  as  effective  as  a  food  as  are  the  carbohydrates.  Hence 
it  is  customary  to  multiply  the  amount  of  fat  by  2%  to  reduce  it 
to  a  "starch  equivalent"  before  adding  it  to  the  amount  of  the 
carbohydrates. 

Protein. —  The  protein  of  foods,  like  that  of  the  animal  body,  is 
characterized  by  containing  nitrogen.  It,  therefore,  is  frequently 
termed  "nitrogenous  matter."  The  term  albumenoids  is  sometimes 
used  to  designate  this  group,  though  it  more  correctly  implies 
a  certain  class  of  protein  substances.  The  function  of  protein 
in  the  food  is,  first  of  all,  to  build  up  and  repair  the  working 
machinery  of  the  body,  and  to  supply  protein  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk,  wool,  etc.  No  other  food  constituent  can  fulfil  this 
function. 

The  importance  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  protein  in  the  ration, 
is,  therefore,  apparent.  If  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  to 


APPENDIX    II  363 

build  up  and  repair  the  waste  of  the  body,  the  protein  may  be 
converted  into  fat  and  deposited  as  such  or  used  to  produce  heat 
and  energy.  Its  efficiency  for  these  purposes  is  about  the  same  as 
the  carbohydrates,  but  as  it  is  usually  far  more  expensive  to  sup- 
ply than  the  carbohydrates,  economy  would  dictate  that  only  so 
much  should  be  supplied  to  the  animal  as  will  suffice  to  repair  the 
wastes  of  the  animal  machinery  and  build  up  new  growth  in  case 
of  growing  animals,  or  for  the  production  of  milk,  wool,  etc. 

COMPOUNDING   OF   RATIONS 

Nutritive  ratio. —  Since  the  protein  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
carbohydrates  and  fat  on  the  other,  serve,  in  the  main,  different 
purposes  in  the  animal  economy,  it  becomes  evident  that  the 
relative  amounts  of  these  nutrients  in  the  food  are  important. 
This  relation  is  expressed  as  the  "nutritive  ratio,"  which  means 
the  relation  of  digestible  protein  to  digestible  carbohydrates  and 
fat — the  fat  having  been  multiplied  by  2%  before  adding  to  the 
carbohydrates,  as  explained  above.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  found 
by  dividing  the  carbohydrate,  plus  2%  times  the  fat,  by  the  pro- 
tein. In  the  accompanying  table,  No.  II,  the  sum  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat,  thus  obtained,  is  given  in  the  third  column, 
which  divided  by  the  protein,  as  given  in  the  second  column,  gives 
the  second  term  of  the  nutritive  ratio  in  the  fifth  column. 

A  feeding  stuff  having  a  large  proportion  of  carbohydrates  and 
fat  as  compared  to  protein  is  said  to  have  a  "wide"  nutritive 
ratio,  while  one  having  a  small  proportion  of  carbohydrates  and 
fat  as  compared  to  protein  has  a  "narrow"  ratio.  While  these 
terms  are  relative,  it  may  be  said  that  a  ratio  greater  than  1 :  6  is 
wide,  while  one  less  that  1 : 5  is  narrow.  The  composition  of  feed- 
ing stuffs,  that  is,  the  proportion  in  which  the  different  nutrients 
occur,  is  determined  by  chemical  analysis,  but  the  amount  of  each 
nutrient  that  is  actually  digestible  has  been  determined  by  careful 
experiments  with  living  animals.  Only  the  digestible  nutrients 
are  considered  in  the  tables  given  in  this  publication. 

Feeding  Standards. —  The  amount  of  nutrients  required,  and  the 
proportions  in  which  each  should  be  given,  vary  with  the  kind  of 
animal  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  kept, — whether  it  is  grow- 


364 


THE    HORSE 


ing,  being  fattened,  doing  work,  or  producing  milk  or  wool. 
Thus  an  ox  at  rest  requires  less  food  and  the  various  nutr.ents  in 
different  proportions  than  an  ox  at  work;  a  cow  producing  milk 
requires  more  food  and  the  nutrients  differently  balanced  than  one 
not  producing. 

TABLE    I— FEEDING  STANDARDS 

A— Per  day  and  1,000  pounds  live  weight.* 


Digestible 

Dry 
matter. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fats. 

Total. 

tive 
ratio. 

Oxen  at  rest  in  stall  

Lbs. 
17.5 

Lbs. 
07 

Lbs. 
8.3 

Lbs. 
9  0 

I'll  9 

Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds      

20.0 

1.2 

10  8 

12  0 

•9  0 

Wool  sheep  finer  breeds 

22  5 

1  5 

12  0 

13  5 

•8  0 

Oxen  moderately  worked  

24  0 

1.6 

12.0 

13  0 

•7  5 

Oxen  heavily  worked 

26  0 

24 

14  3 

16  7 

•6  0 

Horses  lightly  worked  

20.0 

1  5 

10.4 

11  9 

•6  9 

Horses  moderately  worked  
Horses  heavily  worked  
Milk  cows,  Wolff's  standard  
Milk  cows,  Wisconsin  standard  
Fattening  oxen,  preliminary  period. 
Fattening  oxen,  main  period  
Fattening  oxen,  finishing  period  
Fattening  sheep,  preliminary  period 
Fattening  sheep,  main  period 

21  0 
23.0 
24.0 
24.5 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25  0 

1.7 
2.3 
2.5 
2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
3.0 
3.5 

11.8 
lt.3 
13.4 
14.9 
16.1 
16.4 
162 
16.3 
158 

13.5 
16.6 
159 
17.1 
18.6 
19.4 
189 
19.3 
19  3 

:6.9 
:6.2 
:5.4 
:68 
:6.4 
:5.5 
:6.0 
:5.4 
•4  5 

Fattening  swine,  preliminary  period 
Fattening  swine,  main  period  
Fattening  swine,  finishing  period  — 
Growing  cattle: 
Average  live  ivciyl.t 
Age.    Months.           per  head. 
2-3                150  Ibs... 

360 
31.0 
23.5 

22.0 

5.0 
4.0 
2.7 

4  0 

27.5 
24.0 
17.5 

18.3 

32.5 
28.0 
20.2 

223 

:5.5 
:6.0 
:6.5 

•4  6 

3-6                300  Ibs  

23.4 

3  2 

15.8 

19  0 

•4  9 

6-12               500  Ibs  

24.0 

2  5 

14.9 

174 

•6  0 

12-18               700  Ibs 

24  0 

20 

13  9 

15  9 

•7  0 

18-24               850  Ibs  

24.0 

1  6 

12.7 

14  3 

•8  0 

Growing  sheep: 
5-6                  56  Ibs 

28  0 

3  2 

17.4 

20  6 

•5  4 

6-8                  67  Ibs  

25.0 

27 

14.7 

17.4 

•5  4 

8-11                 75  Ibs    . 

23  0 

2  1 

12.5 

14  6 

•6  0 

11-15                82  Ibs  

22.5 

1.7 

11.8 

13  5 

•7  0 

15-20                85  Ibs  

220 

1.4 

11.1 

12  5 

•8  0 

G  owing  fat  pigs: 
2-3                  50  Ibs  

420 

7.5 

30.0 

37  5 

4  0 

3-5                 100  Ibs... 

34.0 

5.0 

25.0 

30.0 

5  0 

5-6                 125  Ibs  

31.5 

4.3 

23.7 

28  0 

5  5 

6-8                 170  Ibs 

27  0 

34 

204 

23  8 

1-60 

8-12               250  Ibs  

21.0 

2.5 

16.2 

18  7 

1-6  5 

*The   fattening   rations  are   calculated    for   1,000    Ibs.   live    weight    at    tho 
beginning  of  the  fattening. 


APPENDIX    II 


365 


TABLE  I  —  FEEDING  STANDARDS  —  Continued 

B— Per  day  and  per  head. 


Digestible 

Dry 
matter 

•Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
and  fats 

Total 

live 
ratio 

Growing  cattle: 
2-3                 150  Ibs 

Lbs. 
3  3 

Lbs. 
0.6 

Lbs. 
2.8 

Lbs. 
3.4 

1:4.6 

3-6                 300  Ibs 

7  0 

1  0 

4  9 

5.9 

1:4.9 

6-12               500  Ibs  

12.0 

1.3 

7.5 

8.8 

1:6.0 

19-18               7i)<)  Ibs 

1C  8 

1  4 

9.7 

11.1 

1:7.0 

18-*t               850  Ibs  
Growing  sheep: 
5-6                  50  Ibs  

6-8                  67  Ibs                   .    . 

20.4 

1.6 

1  7 

1.4 

0.18 
0.18 

11.1 

0.974 
0.981 

12.5 

1.154 
1.161 

1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1:5.4 

8-11                 75  Ibs 

1  7 

0  16 

0  953 

1  113 

1:6.0 

11-15                82  Ibs  
15-20                 85  Ibs 

18 
1  9 

0.14 
0  12 

0.975 
0.955 

1.115 
1.075 

1:7.0 
1:8.0 

Growing  fat  swine: 

2  1 

0  38 

1  50 

1  88 

1-4  0 

3-5                 100  Ibs  

3  4 

0.50 

2^50 

3.00 

1:5.0 

5-6                 125  Ibs  

3  9 

0.54 

2.96 

3.50 

1:5.5 

6-8                 170  Ibs 

4  6 

0  58 

3  47 

4  05 

1:6.0 

8-12               °50  Ibs  

0.62 

4.05 

4.67 

1:6.5 

Various  investigators  have  condensed  the  results  of  many 
experiments  and  much  practical  experience  into  what  are  called 
"feeding  standards,"  which  attempt  to  state  what  is  in  general, 
and  under  average  conditions,  a  good  ration  for  the  purpose  in 
view.  While  these  standards  cannot  be  considered  as  mathe- 
matically exact,  still  large  practical  experience  has  demonstrated 
their  great  value  as  aids  to  feeders. 

In  Table  /,  under  the  title  of  Feeding  Standards,  are  given  the 
approximate  requirements  of  various  classes  of  animals  and  under 
varying  conditions.  These  standards  are  mostly  from  German 
sources,  but  they  have  been  found  very  helpful  to  American 
feeders.  They  are  presented  here  as  arranged  by  Armsby,  in 
Circular  of  Information  No.  1,  "Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm 
Animals,"  Pennsylvania  State  College.  The  standards  are  for  ani- 
mals of  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  and  may  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished for  larger  or  smaller  animals,  though  it  is  probab'e  that  the 
individuality  of  the  animal,  its  power  to  assimilate  and  produce, 
will  have  more  to  do  with  the  varying  of  the  ration  than  its  weight. 


366  THE  HORSE 

It  is  permissible,  perhaps,  to  depart  from  the  amounts  given  in  the 
first  column  under  the  head  of  "Dry  Matter,"  more  than  in  any 
other  way.  The  digestive  apparatus  of  farm  animals  is  elastic  and 
accommodates  itself  quite  readily  to  the  varying  bulk  of  its  food. 
In  the  last  column  is  given  the  nutritive  ratio,  which  should,  per- 
haps, be  adhered  to  with  some  care,  trusting  to  the  appetite  of  the 
animal  (which  will  be  controlled  largely  by  its  power  of  digesting 
and  producing)  to  indicate  the  amount  of  nutrients  required.  As 
a  rule  the  most  rapid  fattening  or  growth  and  abundant  produc- 
tion are  most  economical,  and  these  results  are  best  secured  by 
feeding  an  abundant  and  well-balanced  ration  (well  up  to  the  limit 
of  the  animal's  appetite)  while  the  dry  matter  is  not  permitted 
to  rise  much  above  the  standard. 

Table  II  gives  a  list  of  the  feeding  stuffs  in  most  common  use 
in  New  York  state.  Column  one  is  headed  "dry  matter";  column 
two,  "digestible  protein";  column  three,  digestible  carbohydrates 
-f(fatX2/i)";  column  four,  "total"  (which  is  the  sum  of  two  and 
three);  column  five,  "nutritive  ratio."  In  each  of  these  columns 
are  given  the  computations  of  the  various  food  stuffs  from  one 
pound  up  to  the  amount  that  is  likely  to  be  used  in  compounding 
any  ration.  In  the  case  of  the  coarse  fodders,  to  save  space,  the 
increase  is  made  by  more  than  one  pound  at  a  time,  but  inter- 
mediate amounts  can  readily  be  obtained  from  the  table  if  desired. 
In  no  case  are  the  calculations  for  ten  pounds  of  a  feeding  stuff 
given,  as  these  can  be  obtained  at  once  from  tho  figures  for  one 
pound,  by  simply  moving  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  right. 

These  computations  are  based  upon  the  table  of  "Average 
Digestible  Nutrients  in  American  Feeding  Stuffs"  given  in  Prof. 
W.  A.  Henry's  recent  book,  "Feeds  and  Feeding."  The  aim  has 
been  to  carry  the  computations  involved  in  formulating  rations  as 
near  completion  as  possible,  and  to  present  the  figures  in  such 
simple  form  that  no  feeder  will  have  difficulty  in  comparing  the 
ration  he  is  feeding  with  the  standards  and  correcting  it,  if  neces- 
sary, to  conform  thereto. 


APPENDIX    II 


367 


TABLE    II 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  THE  STATED  AMOUNTS  OF  THE  MORE 
COMMON  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX 
2.25) 

Total 

SOILING  FODDER 
Fodder  corn,  1  Ib  

.20 
1.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

.16 
.80 
2.40 
3.20 
4.00 
4.80 
5.60 
6.40 

.16 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.28 
1.40 
4.20 
5.60 
7.00 
8.40 
9.80 
11.20 

.010 

.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 

.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 

.029 
.145 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 
1.015 
1.160 

.039 
.195 
.585 
.780 
.975 
1.170 
1.365 
1.560 

.125 
.625 
1.875 
2.500 
3.125 
3.750 
4.375 
5.000 

.076 

.380 
1.140 
1.520 
1.900 
2.280 
2.660 
3.040 

.077 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 

.135 
.675 
2.025 
2.700 
3.375 
4.050 
4.725 
5.400 

.094 
.470 
1.410 
1.880 
2.350 
2.820 
3.290 
3.760 

.094 

.193 
.965 
2.895 
3.860 
4.825 
5.790 
6.755 
7.720 

.177 
.885 
2.655 
3.540 
4.425 
5.310 
6.195 
7.080 

1:12.5 
1:  4.2 

1:  4.5 
1:  5.6 

1:  3.5 

5  ibs  

1     15         

'     '>Q 

«     25         

'     30         

'     35        

'     40 

Peas  and  oats,  1  Ib  

5  Ibs  

'             15             .... 

'             20 

'             25 

<             30           

f             35           

'             40           .  f. 

Peas  and  barley  

Practically  the  same  as  peas 
and  oats. 
Red  clover    1  Ib 

5  Ibs 

15          

20          

25 

30 

35           

40 

Alfalfa,  1  Ib.    

5  Ibs  

15    '        

20    '           .... 

25    ' 

30    ' 

35    ' 

40    ' 

368 


THE    HORSE 

TABLE    II  — Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.21 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy 
drates  + 
(fat  X 
2.25) 

Total 

SOILING  FODDER—  Continued 
Hungarian  grass,  1  Ib  
5  Ibs  
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 

Corn  silage,  1  Ib... 

.020 
.100 
.300 
.400 
.500 
.600 
.700 
.800 

.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 
.270 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.450 
• 

.025 
.125 
.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
.900 

.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 

.169 
.845 
2.535 
3.380 
4.225 
5.070 
5.915 
6.760 

.129 
.645 
1.935 
2.580 
3.225 
3.870 
4.515 
5.160 
5.805 
6.450 

.141 
.705 
2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.230 
4.935 
5.640 

.165 
.825 
2.475 
3.300 
4.125 

.056 
.280 
.840 
1.120 

.189 
.945 
2.835 
3.780 
4.725 
5.670 
6.615 
7.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
y.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 
6.210 
6900 

.166 
.830 
2.490 
3.320 
4.150 
4.980 
5.810 
6.640 

.174 
.870 
2.610 
3.480 
4.350 

.067 
.335 
1.005 
1.340 

1:  8.4 
1:14.3 

1:  5.6 

1:18.3 
1:  5.1 

5  Ibs 

1.05 
3.15 
4.20 
5.25 
6.30 
7.35 
8.40 
9.45 
10.50 

.27 
1.45 
4.05 
5.40 
6.75 
8.10 
9.45 
10.80 

.21 
1.05 
3  15 

15          
20           

25           

30           
35 

40 

45           

50           

*Pea  vine  silage,  1  Ib  
5  Ibs  
15 
20 
25 
30           .     . 
35 
40 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 

Potatoes,   1  Ib  

"          5  Ibs  

"        15    " 

"        20    " 

4.20 
5.25 

.09 
.45 
1.35 
1.80 

25    "     

Beet,  mangel,  1  Ib. 

"            "         5  Ibs. 

'•       15    "    .... 
"       20    "    

"Computed  from  recent  analysis,  by  G.  W.  Cavanaugh, 


APPENDIX    II 

TABLE    II  —  Continued 


369 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 

2.25) 

Total 

ROOTS  and  TUBERS-Cont'd. 
Beet   mangel,  25  Ibs  

2.25 
2.70 

.13 
.65 
1.95 
2.60 
3.25 
3.90 

.11 
.55 
1.65 
2.20 
2.75 
3.30 

.87 
2.61 
4.35 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 
10.44 
13.05 
15.66 
17.40 

.87 
2.61 
4.35 
6.09 
6  96 

.275 
.330 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 

.008 
.040 
.120 
.160 
.200 
.240 

.028 
.084 
.140 
.196 
.224 
.252 
.336 
.420 
.504 
.560 

.062 
.186 
.310 
.434 
.496 
.558 
.744 
.930. 
1.116 
1.240 

1.400 

1.680 

.104 
.520 
1.560 
2.080 
2.600 
3.120 

.082 
.410 
1.230  . 
1.640 
2.050 
2.460 

.465 
1.395 
2.325 
3.255 
3.720 
4.185 
5  580 
6.975 
8.370 
9.300 

.460 
1.381 
2.300 
3.220 
3.680 
4.140 
5.520  . 
6.900 
8.280 
9.200 

1.675 
2.010 

.115 
.575 
1.725 
2.300 
2.875 
3.450 

.090 
.450 
1.350 
1.800 
2.250 
2.700 

.493 
1.479 
2.465 
3.451 
3.944 
4.437 
5.916 
7.395 
8.874 
9.860 

.522 
1.566 
2.610 
3.654 
4.176 
4.698 
6.264 
7.830 
9.393 
10.440 

1:  9.4 

1:10.3 

1:16.6 
1:  7.4 

"            "         30    " 

Beet,  sugar,  1  Ib  

•                   5  ibs  

'                  15    " 

'                  20    " 

25    "      

'                  30    "       

Carrot    1  Ih 

<          5  Ibs  

<        15    "      

'        20    "        

'        25    " 

'        30    "      

HAY  AND  STRAW 
Timothy    1  Ib 

3  Ibs  

5          

7 

g 

9          

12            

15          

18 

20 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover, 
1  lb  

3  ibs  

7 

8 

9           

7.83 
10.44 
13  05 
15.96 
17.40 

12             

15                 .... 

18 

20            

370 


THE    HORSE 

TABLE   II  — Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25) 

Total 

HAY  and  STRAW—  Continued. 

.92 
2.76 
4.60 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 

.85 
2.55 
4.25 
5.95 
6.80 
7.65 
10.20 
12.75 
15.30 
17.00 

.92 
2.76 
4.60 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 
12.80 
16.56 
18.40 

.58 
2.90 
4.64 
6.96 
8.70 
10.44 
11.60 

.60 
3.00 
4.80 

.045 
.135 
.225 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.540 

.068 
.204 
.340 
.476 
.544 
.612 
.816 
1.020 
1.224 
1.360 

.110 
.330 
.550 
.770 
.880 
.990 
1.320 
1.650 
1.980 
2.200 

.025 
.125 
.200 
.300 
.375 
.450 
.500 

.017 

.085 
.136 

.546 
1.638 
2.730 
3.822 
4.368 
4.914 
6.552 

.396 
1.188 
1.980 
2.772 
3.168 
3.564 
4.752 
5.940 
7.128 
7.920 

.423 
1.269 
2.115 
2.961 
3.384 
3.807 
5.076 
6.345 
7.614 
8.460 

.373 
1.865 
2.984 
4.476 
5.595 
6.714 
7.460 

.340 
1.720 
2.720 

.591 
1.773 
2.955 
4.137 
4.728 
5.319 
7.092 

.464 
1.392 
2.320 
3.248 
3.712 
4.176 
5.568 
6.960 
8.352 
9.280 

.533 
1.599 
2.665 
3.731 
1.264 
4.797 
6.396 
7.995 
9.594 
10.660 

.398 
1.990 
3.184 
4.776 
5.970 
7.164 
7.960 

.357 
1.805 
2.856 

1:12.1 

1:  5.8 

1:  3.8 

1:14.9 
1:19.9 

'      3  Ibs 

'      5    " 

<      7    <«    

'      8    "    .... 

'      9    " 

'    12    " 

Red  clover  hay    1  Ib   

'       3  Ibs 

1       5 

<       7        

'       8        .... 

'       9 

<      12 

'     15        

'18 

'     20 

Alfalfa  hay,  1  Ib  

3  Ibs 

5 

7           

8           

9 

12 

15           

18             

20 

Corn  fodder,  1  Ib  

5  ibs  

8 

12 

15          

18          

20            .... 

Corn  stover,  1  Ib 

"              5  Ibs 

"               8    "  

APPENDIX    II 

TABLE    II  —  Continued 


371 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX 
2.25) 

Total 

HAY  and  STRAW-Continued. 
Corn  stover    12  Ibs  

7.20 
9.00 
10.80 
12.00 

.86 
2.58 
4.30 
6.88 
10.32 
12.90 

.95 
1.90 
2.85 
3.80 
4.75 
6.65 
8.55 
11.40 

.90 
2.70 
4.50 
7.20 
10.80 
13.50 

.91 
2.73 
4.55 
7.28 
10.92 
13.65 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 

.204 
.255 
.306 
.340 

.043 
.129 
.215 
.344 
.516 
.645 

.036 
.072 
.108 
.144 
.180 
.252 
.324 
.432 

.004 
.012 
.020 
.032 
.048 
.060 

.012 
.036 
.060 
.096 
.144 
.180 

.079 
.158 
.237 
.316 

4.080 
5.160 
6.120 
6.880 

.341 
1.023 
1.705 
2.728 
4.092 
5.115 

.397 
.794 
1.191 
1.588 
1.985 
2.779 
3.573 
4.764 

.372 
1.01.6 
1.860 
2.976 
4.064 
5.580 

.404 
1.212 
2.020 
3.232 

4.848 
6.060 

.764 
1.528 
2.292 
3.056 

4.284 
5.415 
6.426 
7.220 

.384 
1.152 
1.920 
3.072 
4.608 
5.760 

.433 

.866 
1.299 
1.732 
2.165 
3.031 
3.897 
5.196 

.376 
1.128 
1.880 
3.008 
4.512 
5.640 

.416 
1.248 
2.080 
3.328 
4.992 
6.240 

.843 
1.686 
2.529 
3.372 

1:  7.9 
1:11 

1:93 
1:33.6 

1:  9.7 

"               15    "         

"               18    " 

"              20    " 

Pea-vine  straw    1  Ib    

3  Ibs  

8    "  

12    " 

15    "  
*Bean  straw,  1  Ib  

2  Ibs     

3          

4 

9 

12          
Wheat  straw,  1  Ib  

3  Ibs  

'               5    "  

«               8    " 

'             12    " 

'             15    "  

Oat  straw,  1  Ib  

3  Ibs   ... 

'              5    " 

i              g    « 

<            12    " 

<            15    "  

GRAIN 

Corn  (  av  )    1  Ib 

"                 2  Ibs  

••                 3    "    

"                 4    '•    . 

*Computed  from  recent  analysis  by  G-.  W.  Cavanaugh. 


372 


THE    HORSE 

TABLE   II  —  Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25) 

Total 

GRAIN—  Continued. 
Corn  (av  )    5  Ibs    .   ... 

4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3  56 

.395 
.474 
.553 
.632 
.711 

.102 
.204 
.306 
.408 
.510 
.612 

.099 
.198 
.297 
.396 
.495 
.594 

.087 
.174 
.261 
.348 
.435 
.522 

.092 
.184 
.276 
.368 
.460 
.552 
.644 
.736 
.828 
1.104 
1.380 

.077 
.154 

3.820 
4.584 
5.348 
6.112 
6.876 

.730 
1.460 
2.190 
2.920 
3.650 
4.380 

.700 

1.400 
2.100 
2.800 
3.500 
4.200 

.692 
1.384 
2.076 
2.768 
3.460 
4.152 

.568 
1.136 
1.704 
2.272 
2.840 
3.408 
3.976 
4  544 
5.112 
6.816 
8.520 

.533 
1.066 

4.215 
5.058 
5.901 
6.744 

7.587 

.832 
1.664 
2.496 
3.328 
4.160 
4.992 

.799 
1.598 
2.397 
3.196 
3.995 
4.794 

.779 
1.558 
2.337 
3.116 
3.895 
4.674 

.660 
1.320 
1.980 
2.640 
3.300 
3.960 
4.620 
5.280 
5.940 
7.920 
9.900 

.610 

1  220 

1:  7.2 
1:  7.1 
1:  7.9 
1:  6.2 

1:  6.9 

«                 g    »t 

"                7   "•    

'«                 8    "    

«                 9    "      

Wheat    1  Ib 

2  Ibs  

<          3     "      

4     i< 

<          5     '< 

'          6     "    

Rye    1  Ib 

2  Ibs 

3     "    

4     «<              

5     " 

6     " 

Barley,  1  Ib. 

2  Ibs 

3     "     

4     "     

5     " 

6     " 

Oats,  1  Ib  

2  Ibs                  . 

3 

4 

5         

4.45 
5.34 

6         

7        

g 

6.23 
7.12 
8.01 
10.68 
13.35 

.87 
1.74 

9 

12         

15         

Buckwheat,  1   Ib  

"            2  Ibs 

APPENDIX    II 

TABLE   II  —  Continued 


373 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

1:  3.2 

1:15.1 
1:  3.7 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 

2.25) 

1.599 
2.132 
2  665 
3.198 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 

.534 
1.068 
1.602 
2.136 
2.670 
3.204 
3.738 
4.272 
4.806 

.665 
1.330 
1.995 
2.660 
3.325 
3.990 
4.655 
5.320 
5.985 
7.980 

.453 
.906 
1.359 
1.812 
2.265 
2.718 
3.171 
3.624 
4.077 

Total 

GRAIN-Continued. 

2  61 

.231 

.308 
.385 
.462 
.539 
.616 
.693 

.168 
.336 
.504 
.672 
.840 
1.008 
1.176 
1.344 
1.512 

.044 
.088 
.132 
.176 
.220 
.264 
.308 
.352 
.396 
.528 

.122 
.244 
.366 

.488 
.610 
.732 
.854 
.976 
1.098 

1.830 
2.440 
3.050 
3.660 
4.270 
4.880 
5.490 

.702 
1.404 
2.106 
2.808 
3.510 
4.212 
4.914 
5.616 
6.318 

.709 
1.418 
2.127 
2.836 
3.545 
4.254 
4.963 
5.672 
6.381 
8.508 

.575 
1.150 
1.725 
2.300 
2.875 
3.450 
4.025 
4.600 
5.175 

4         

3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.85 
1.70 
2.55 
3.40 
4.25 
5.10 
5.95 
6.80 
7.65 
10.20 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 

6              ... 

7 

g 

9         

Peas,  1  Ib    

"      2  Ibs       ...            .    . 

•'      3 

"      4         

"      5           

"      6 

«        7 

•<        g 

"9           

MILL  PRODUCTS 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  1  Ib  . 
2  Ibs... 
3 
4 
5 
6 
'            7 
8 
9 
12 

Wheat  bran    1  Ib 

"                   2  Ibs  

"                    3               

"                    4 

5         

"                    6 

4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

••                   7         

"                    8           

9         

374 


THE    HORSE 
TABLE    II  —  Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy 
drates  H 
(fat  X 
2.25) 

Total 

MILL  PRODUCTS—  Continued. 

Wheat  middlings,  1  Ib.   ... 

.88 

.128 

.607 

.735 

1:  4.7 

'                               2  Ibs  ... 

1.76 

.256 

1.214 

1.470 

3 

2.64 

.384 

1.821 

2.205 

4 

3.52 

.512 

2.428 

2.940 

5 

4.40 

.640 

3.035 

3.675 

6 

5.28 

.768 

3.642 

4.410 

7 

6.16 

.896 

4.249 

5.145 

8 

7.04 

1.024 

4.856 

5.880 

9 

7.92 

1.152 

5.463 

6.615 

Dark  feeding  flour,  1  Ib... 

.90 

.135 

.658 

.793 

1:  4.9 

2  Ibs.. 

1.80 

.270 

1.316 

1.58G 

3    "   .. 

2.70 

.405 

1.974 

2.379 

t                 «          4  «i  ; 

3.60 

.540 

2.632 

3.172 

5    "   .. 

4.50 

.675 

3.290 

3.965 

'                    "            6    "   .. 

5.40 

.810 

3.948 

4.758 

7   "   .. 

6.30 

.945 

4.606 

5.551 

'                     "             8    "   .. 

7.20 

1.080 

5.264 

6.344 

1                                 9   "   .. 

8.10 

1.215 

5.922 

7.137 

Low-grade  flour,  1  Ib  

.88 

.082 

.647 

.729 

1:  7.9 

"      2  Ibs.   ... 

1.76 

.164 

1.294 

1.458 

,246 

1.941 

2.187 

"      4        .    ... 

3.52 

.328 

2.588 

2.916 

"       5         .    ... 

4.40 

.410 

3.235 

3.645 

"      6         .   ... 

5.28 

.492 

3.882 

4.374 

"7 

6.16 

.574 

4.529 

5.103 

"       8         .    ... 

7.04 

.656 

5.176 

5.832 

'                     "       9             ... 

7.92 

.738 

5.823 

6.561 

Rye  bran,  1  Ib  

.88 

.115 

.548 

6f>3 

1  .     A    Q 

'                 2  Ibs, 

1.76 

.230 

1.096 

.000 
1  39fi 

1  •     :r.o 

t                 3    « 

2.64 

.345 

I    (\AA 

l.O^O 

1  QSQ 

'                 4   "  .... 

3.52 

.*460 

£•044 

2.192 

-I  .*7Ot7 

2.652 

5   "  .... 

4.40 

.575 

2.740 

3.315 

6   "  

5.28 

.690 

3  288 

3.978 

'                7  "... 

6.16 

.805 

•>  oqc 

4(541 

1                8   "  

7.04 

.920 

o.ooO 

4.384 

.O^rl 

5.304 

'      9   "  

7.92 

1.035 

4.952 

5.967 

Buckwheat  bran,  1  Ib  

.90 

.074 

.347 

.421 

1:  4.7 

"       2  Ibs  

1.80 

.148 

!<SM 

.842 

"       3    "   

2.70 

.222 

1.041 

1.263 

APPENDIX   II 
TABLE    II  —  Continued 


375 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25) 

Total 

MILL  PRODUCTS-Continued. 
Buckwheat  bran,  4  Ibs  

3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.87 
1.74 
2.61 
3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 

.24 

.48 

.296 
.370 
.444 
.518 
.592 
.666 

.220 
.440 
.660 
.880 
1.100 
1.320 
1.540 
1.760 
1.980 

.186 
.372 
.558 
.744 
.930 
1.116 
1.302 
1.488 
1.674 

.248 
.496 
.744 
.992 
1.240 
1.488 
1,736 
1.984 

.039 
.078 

1.388 
1.735 
2.082 
2.429 
2.776 
3.123 

.456 
.912 
1.368 
1.824 
2.280 
2.736 
3.192 
3.648 
4.104 

.409 

.818 
1.227 
1.636 
2.045 
2.454 
2.863 
3.272 
3.681 

.552 
1.104 
1.656 
2.208 
2.760 
3.312 
3.864 
4.416 

.125 
.250 

1.684 
2.105 
2.526 
2.847 
3.368 
3.789 

.676 
1.352 
2.028 
2.704 
3.380 
4.056 
4.732 
5.408 
6.084 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.800 
1.600 
2.400 
3.200 
4.000 
4.800 
5.600 
6.400 

.164 
.328 

1:  2.1 

1:  2.2 

1:  2.2 

1:  3.2 

"                '       5     '   .    .   . 

"                '       6     ' 

4       7     '     .... 
"              '      8    '  

"               '       9     '   .    .   . 

Buckwheat  middlings,  1  Ib.  . 
2  Ibs. 
"                               3."  . 
4  "  . 
"                               5  "  . 
"                               6  "  . 
7  "'. 
"                                8  "  . 

a                                           ')    '  ' 

BY-PRODUCTS 

Malt  sprouts    1  Ib 

2  Ibs   

3    "    

4    " 

5    " 

6    "   

7    "   

8    •' 

9    " 

Distillers'  dried  grains, 
Bile's  xxxx,  1  Ib  

*            2  Ibs 

'            3 

<            4          

«            5          

'            6 

'            7 

«            8          

Brewer's  grain,  wet,  1  Ib... 
"     2  Ibs.. 

376 


THE    HORSE 
TABLE    II  —  Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX 
2.25) 

Total 

BY-PRODUCTS—  Continued. 

Brewer's  grain,  wet,  3  Ibs. 

.72 

.117 

.375 

.492 

•'      4    "    . 

.96 

.156 

.500 

.656 

"      5    "    . 

1.20 

.195 

.625 

.820 

'                    4      6    "    . 

1.44 

.234 

.750 

.984 

1     7   "   . 

1.68 

.273 

.875 

1.148 

'      8    "    . 

1.92 

.312 

1.000 

1.312 

'     9    "    . 

2.16 

.351 

1.125 

1.476 

'    11    "    . 

2.64 

.429 

1.375 

1.804 

'•    12    "    . 

2.88 

.468 

1.500 

1.968 

"    15    "    . 

3.60 

.585 

1.875 

2.460 

Brewer's  grains,  dry,  1  Ib.  . 

.92 

.157 

.478 

.635 

1:  3 

"      2  Ibs. 

1.84 

.314 

.956 

1.270 

3      ' 

2.76 

.471 

1.434 

1.905 

4      .- 

3.68 

.628 

1.912 

2.540 

5      ' 

4.60 

.785 

2.390 

3.175 

'       6      ' 

5.52 

.942 

2.868 

3.810 

.        7      •' 

6.44 

1.099 

3.346 

4.445 

t       8      , 

7.36 

1.256 

3.824 

5.080 

9      * 

8.28 

1.413 

4.302 

5.715 

Buffalo  gluten  feed,  1  Ib... 

.90 

.232 

,699 

.931 

1:  3 

2  ibs.: 

1.80 

.464 

1.398 

1.862 

3 

2.70 

.696 

2.097 

2.793 

'                 4         .. 

3.60 

.928 

2.796 

".724 

'                 5 

4.50 

1.160 

3.495 

4.655 

6 

5.40 

1.392 

4.194 

5.586 

'                 7 

6.30 

1.624 

4.893 

6.517 

8 

7.20 

1.856 

5.592 

7.448 

Chicago  gluten  meal,  1  Ib.. 

.88 

.322 

.468 

.790 

1.  1.5 

"            "          "       2  Ibs. 

1.76 

.644 

.936 

1.580 

'       3     ' 

2.64 

.966 

1.404 

2.370 

'       4     ' 

3.52 

1.288 

1.872 

3.160 

i             «            '       5     ' 

4.40 

1.610 

2.340 

3.950 

'       6     ' 

5.28 

1.932 

2.808 

4.740 

1       7     ' 

6.16 

2.254 

3.276 

5.530 

t            tl           r     g   " 

7.04 

2.576 

3.744 

6.320 

Hominy  chop,  1  Ib  

.89 

.075 

.705 

.780 

1:  9.4 

"            ««      2  Ibs  

1.78 

.150 

1.410 

1.560 

APPENDIX    II 


377 


TABLE    II  —  Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feeJ 

Total  dry 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat  X 
2.25) 

Total 

BY-PRODUCTS—  Continued. 
Hominy  chop,  3  Ibs  
4          
'                     5 

2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5  34 

.225 
.300 
.375 
.450 
.525 
.600 
.675 

.293 
.586 
.879 
1.172 
1.465 
1.758 
2.051 

.282 
.564 
.846 
1.128 
1.410 
1.692 
1.974 

.372 
.744 
1.116 

1.488 
1.860 
2.232 
2.604 
2.976 
3.348 

.018 
.090 
.270 

2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.230 
4.935 
5.640 
6.345 

.485 
.970 
1.455 
1.940 
2.425 
2.910 
3.395 

.464 

.928 
1.392 
1.856 
2.320 

2.784 
3.248 

.444 
.888 
1.332 
1.776 
2.220 
2.664 
3.008 
3.552 
3.996 

.091 
.455 
1.365 

2.340 
3.120 
3.900 
4.680 
5.460 
6.240 
7.020 

.778 
1.556 
2.334 
3.112 
3.890 
4  668 
5.446 

.746 
1.492 
2.238 
2.984 
3.730 
4.476 
5.232 

.816 
1.632 
2  448 
?.264 
4.080 
4.896 
5.712 
6.528 
7.344 

.109 
.545 
1.635 

1:  1.7 

1:  1.6 
1:  1.2 

1:  5.1 

'                     6 

7            

6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.91 
1.82 
2.73 
3.64 
4.55 
5.46 
6.37 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36  ' 
8.28 

.15 
.75 
2.25 

'                     8              .    . 

9          

Linseed  meal 
(old  process),  1  Ib         ... 

"                      2  Ibs 

"                      3 

"                      4         

"                      5 

"                      6 

"                     7        

Linseed  meal 
(new  process)    1   Ib 

2  Ibs  

'                        3 

'                        4 

'                        5 

«                        6         

'                       7        

Cotton-seed  meal,  1  Ib  .  .  .  . 
2  Ibs.  .  . 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Cabbage,  1   Ib.  

5  Ibs 

"        15    " 

378 


THE    HOUSE 


TABLE    II  — Continued 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

Total  dn 
matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrient 

Proteii 

Carboh 
drates  - 
(fatX 
2.25) 

Total 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

MISCELLANEOUS—  Continued 
Cabbage,  20  Ibs  .  . 

3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 

.12 
.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
3.60 
4.20 
4.80 

.10 
.50 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 
3.50 
4.00 

.79 
1.58 
2.37 
3.16 
3.95 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 

.19 
.95 
2.85 
3.90 
4.75 
5.70 

.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 
.085 
.255 
.340 
.425 
.510 
.595 
.680 

.006 
.030 
.090 
.120 
.150 
1.80 
.210 
.240 

.091 
.182 
.273 
.364 
.455 
.546 
.637 
.728 
.819 

.007 
.035 
.105 
.140 
.175 
.210 

1.820 
2.275 
2.730 
3.185 
3.640 

.051 
.255 
.765 
1.020 
1.275 
1.530 
1.785 
2.040 

.073 
.365 
1.095 
1.460 
1.825 
2.190 
2.555 
2.920 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.188 
.940 
2.820 
3.760 
4.700 
5.640 

2.180 
2.725 
3.270 
3.815 
4.360 

.068 
.340 
1.020 
1.360 
1.700 
2.040 
2.380 
2.720 

.079 
.395 
1.185 
1.580 
1.975 
2.370 
2.765 
2.160 

.686 
1.372 
2.058 
2.744 
3.430 
4.116 
4.802 
5.488 
6.174 

.195 
.975 
2.925 
3.900 
4.875 
5.850 

1:  3 
1:12 
1:  6.5 

1:26.8 

25    ^    ... 

30    "    

35    "    

"          40    "    .... 

Sugar  beet  leaves,  1  lb.  . 
5  Ibs.. 
15 
20 
"        25 
30 
"        35 
"40 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  1  lb.  .  . 
5  Ibs  ... 
"      15 
"      20 
"      25 
"      30 
"      35 
"      40 

Beet  molasses,  1  lb.. 

2  Ibs  .... 

3         

'              '           4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9    ;;;::: 

Apples,   1  lb... 

"        5  Ibs... 

"       15    "   

"       20    " 

"       25 

"       30    "    

APPENDIX   II 

TABLE   II  —  Continued 


379 


Kind  and  amount  of  feed 

[*otal  dry 

matter 

Lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients 

Nutr'tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX 
2.25) 

Total 

.175 
.875 
2.625 
3.500 
4.375 
5.250 
6.125 
7.000 

.006 
.480 
.768 
1.152 
1.440 
1.920 
2.400 
2.880 

.088 
.440 
.704 
1.056 
1:320 
1.760 
2.200 
2.620 

.104 
.520 
.832 
1.248 
1.560 
2.080 
2.600 
3.120 

MISCELLANEOUS—  Continued. 

.233 
1.165 
3.495 
4.660 
5.825 
6.990 
8.155 
9.320 

.096 
.480 
.768 
1.152 
1.440 
1.920 
2.400 
2.880 

.094 
.470 
.752 
1.128 
1.410 
1.880 
2.350 
2.820 

.10 
.50 
.80 
1.20 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 
.385 
.440 

.031 
.155 
.248 
.372 
.465 
.620 
.775 
.930 

.029 
.145 
.232 
.348 
.435 
.580 
,725 
.870 

.039 
.195 
.312 
.468 
.585 
.780 
.975 
1.170 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.065 
.325 
.520 
.780 
.975 
1.300 
1.625 
1.950 

.059 
.295 
.472 
.708 
.885 
1.180 
1.475 
1.770 

.065 
.325 
.520 
.780 
.975 
1.300 
1.625 
1.950 

1:14.9 
1:  2.1 

1:  2 
1:   1.7 

5  Ibs  

15         

20            .... 

25 

30 

35          

40          

Skim  milk,  gravity,  1  Ib... 
5  Ibs.. 
8 
"                           12 
«                           15 
20 
25 
30 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal, 
1  Ib    

5  ibs               

8    " 

12    " 

15    "               

20    " 

25    "    

30    "    .               

Buttermilk,  1  Ib  

"            -5  Ibs  

"             8 

"              19 

"           15 

"           20 

"           25          

"           30           

*From  Bulletin  of  Information  No.  1,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


380 


THE  HORSE 


To  illustrate  how  these  tables  may  be  used,  we  will  examine  a 
system  of  feeding  which  the  writer  observed  the  present  season  in 
a  certain  section  of  the  state,  and  was  told  was  quite  extensively 
practiced.  The  section  referred  to  is  devoted  almost  exclusively 
to  dairying,  and  timothy  hay  constitutes  the  greater  portion  of  the 
coarse  fodder  during  the  feeding  season.  Oats  are  about  the  only 
grain  grown.  Corn  is  purchased  and  ground  with  the  oats,  in 
about  equal  weights,  to  make  "chop,"  which  is  fed  with  the  hay. 
The  cows  will  not  greatly  vary  from  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 
While  these  cows  are  in  full  flow  of  milk  in  the  spring  before 
pasture  is  ready,  they  are  fed  about  20  pounds  of  hay  and  8 
pounds  of  chop  per  day.  Turning  to  the  tables,  we  find  that  20 
pounds  of  hay,  4  pounds  of  oats  and  4  pounds  of  corn  contain 
digestible  nutrients  as  follows: — 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  and 
Fat 

Total 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

20  Ibs.  hay  

17.40 

.560 

9.300 

9.860 

4  Ibs.  oats   

3.56 

.368 

2.772 

2.640 

4  Ibs   corn 

3.56 

.316 

3.056 

3  372 

Total  

24.52 

1.244 

14  628 

15  872 

I'll  7 

Wolff's  Standard  

24.00 

2.5 

13.4 

15  9 

1-  5  4 

Upon  comparison  of  the  nutrients  furnished  by  this  ration  with 
Wolff's  standard  as  given  in  Table  I,  it  is  discovered  that  while 
the  dry  matter  and  total  nutrients  are  not  far  out  of  the  way,  the 
protein  is  much  too  small,  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  some- 
what too  great,  while  the  nutritive  ratio  is  far  too  wide. 

This  result  might  readily  have  been  foreseen  had  we  paused  a 
moment  to  note  the  nutritive  ratio  of  each  of  the  three  foods 
entering  into  the  ration.  They  are,  timothy  hay,  1:  16  6;  oats, 
1:6.2;  corn,  1:9.7.  Neither  of  them  is  as  narrow  as  the  stan- 
dard, and  it  is  impossible  to  combine  them  into  a  ration  that  is 
approximately  balanced.  As  corn  is  a  purchased  product,  the 
natural  suggestion  is  that  the  corn  should  be  replaced  by  some 
food  having  a  high  proportion  of  protein,  or,  in  other  words,  a 
very  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  Consulting  the  table,  it  is  found 
that  among  such  are  linseed  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  gluten  feed, 


APPENDIX  II 


381 


malt  sprouts,  buckwheat,  middlings,  etc.  As  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings is  a  New  York  State  product  and  can  readily  be  put  in  stock 
during  the  winter,  it  is  suggested  to  substitute  it  for  the  corn  in 
the  ration.  Again  taking  the  figures  from  the  table,  we  have: — 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  and 
Fat 

Total 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

20  Ibs  timothy  hay     .   ... 

17.40 

.560 

9.300 

9  860 

4  Ibs   oats 

3  56 

.368 

2  272 

2  640 

4  Ibs.  buckwheat  raid's.. 

3.48 

.880 

1.824 

2.704 

Total 

24.44 

1.808 

13  396 

15  204 

1'7  4 

While  this  ration  is  much  improved  over  the  previous  one  and 
will  produce  a  much  freer  flow  of  milk,  it  is  still  too  wide  to  pro- 
duce the  b«jst  results. 

If  the  timothy  hay  is  reduced  two  pounds,  and  two  pounds  of 
cotton-seed  meal  put  in  its  place,  we  get: — 


Dry 

matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  and 
Fat 

Total 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

18  Ibs.  timothy  hay  

15.66 

.504 

8.370 

8  874 

4  Ibs.  oats  

3.56 

.368 

2.272 

2  640 

4  Ibs.  buckwheat  mid's.  . 
2  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal   .  . 

3.48 
1.84 

.880 
.744 

1.824 
.888 

2.704 
1.632 

Total  

24.54 

2.496 

13  354 

15  850 

1-53 

This  ration  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  standard ;  and  while 
the  purchase  of  the  cotton-seed  meal  will  add  somewhat  to  the 
expense,  still  it  is  the  experience  of  careful  feeders  that  the 
increased  production  will  abundantly  pay  for  thus  securing  a 
proper  balance  to  the  ration. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  using  other  feeding  stuffs 
having  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  The  question  is  likely  to  be 
raised,  which  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs  offered  in  the  market 
may  most  economically  be  used  in  supplementing  the  home- 
grown foods  to  produce  a  balanced  ration?  This  question  is  best 
answered  by  formulating  properly  balanced  rations  containing 
each  of  the  foods  under  consideration,  and  by  assigning  the  actual 
market  value  per  pound  to  each  of  the  constituents  of  the  ration, 
its  cost  is  readily  ascertained  and  the  cheapest  may  be  selected, 


382  THE  HORSE 

ELEMENTS  OF  FERTILITY  IN  1,000  POUNDS 


Water 

Ash 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Potash 

Esti- 
mated 
value 
per  ton 

Alfalfa  (  green  )  

760 

22  1 

6  2 

1.5 

3  5 

$9  18 

Alfalfa  bay               

153 

80  2 

17  6 

6.1 

17  9 

7  08 

Apple  pomace 

740 

8  2 

1  7 

.1 

3 

9g 

Barley 

143 

24  8 

13  9 

7  9 

4  8 

5  04 

Barley  and  peas  (green). 
Bean  straw  

755 
53 

16.7 
69 

2.7 
11  4 

1.8 
2.1 

5.05 
18  4 

1  38 
5  04 

Beets  (sugar)           

820 

8  1 

1  7 

.8 

3  7 

88 

Brewer's  grains   dry 

95 

47  2 

25  1 

16.1 

2 

8  70 

Brewer's  grains,  wet  

762 

12  4 

6.2 

4.2 

5 

2  16 

Buckwheat  

141 

27  7 

12  3 

6.9 

3 

4  34 

Buckwheat  bran  .     ... 

156 

28 

11  8 

4.2 

12  7 

4  82 

Buckwheat  mid.,  coarse  . 

120 

856 

47. 
14  1 

35.2 
2  8 

12.3 
2.2 

11.4 
5  2 

11  98 
1  48 

Carrots  

870 

10 

1.2 

.9 

2  6 

65 

Corn  fodder  with  ears  .  .  . 
Corn  silage  (green)  

92 
779 

37.4 

4. 
1.4 

2.9 
1.1 

14. 
3.7 

2  64 

82 

Corn  stover  

150 

45.3 

2.7 

3.8 

16.4 

2  57 

Cotton-seed  meal  

88 

70.5 

59.5 

30.4 

15  8 

20  82 

Gluten  meal 

86 

7  3 

41.2 

3.3 

5 

11  18 

Hominy  feed 

89 

22  1 

12. 

9.8 

4  9 

4  68 

Hungarian  grass  (green). 
Indian  corn   

870 
130 

12. 

14.8 

3.2 
12.6 

.7 
5.7 

4.7 

3.7 

1  38 
4  34 

Linseed  meal,  new  P  
Linseed  meal    old  P 

110 

89 

62.1 
61 

45.1 
46  8 

17.4 
16.6 

13.4 
13  7 

15  40 

15  83 

Maize  fodder  (green)  
Malt  sprouts   

828 
120 

14.7 
75.1 

1.6 
29.7 

1.1 
17.4 

3.9 
19.9 

90 
11  68 

Mangel-wurzel 

873 

12  2 

1.7 

.9 

3.8 

90 

Mixed  hay 

137 

64  5 

9.9 

4.1 

13  2 

4  33 

Oats  

133 

31. 

14.7 

6.9 

4.8 

5  16 

Oat  straw  

145 

57. 

1.9 

2.8 

17.7 

2  38 

Peas  . 

140 

28  1 

26.8 

8.4 

10.1 

9  10 

Peas  and  oats  (green)  .. 
Pea  vine  straw  

467 
136 

16.05 
66. 

2.8 
6.8 

1.65 
3.5 

6.25 
10.2 

1  50 
3  14 

Red  clover  (green)     .   . 

790 

16. 

4.6 

1.5 

4.8 

1  86 

Red  clover  hay 

170 

62  1 

10.8 

5.5 

18.7 

5  20 

Rye 

134 

19  8 

15.8 

8.6 

5.8 

5  72 

Rye  bran  

125 

46. 

18.4 

22.8 

14. 

8  46 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal... 
Sugar-beet  leaves 

906 
880 

7.4 
23  9 

4.6 
2.7 

2.1 
1.5 

2. 
6.2 

1  65 
1  25 

Sugar-beet  pulp 

898 

5  8 

.96 

9 

.4 

32 

Timothy  hav 

143 

41  1 

4  4 

5. 

14.1 

2  95 

Turnips 

905 

8 

1  8 

1. 

3.9 

94 

Wheat  

134 

17.1 

16.3 

8.7 

5.5 

5  84 

Wheat  bran   

132 

58. 

19.5 

26.9 

15.2 

9  24 

Wheat  middlings.   .   . 

126 

27. 

20.4 

13.5 

7.4 

7  60 

Wheat  straw 

136 

53. 

.64 

2.2 

6.3 

94 

See  "Fertility  of  the  Land.' 


APPENDIX    III 

LIVE-STOCK  REGISTRY  ASSOCIATIONS,    WITH  THE 
NAMES    OF   THE   SECRETARIES   OR   EDITORS 

HORSES 

AMERICAN   THOROUGHBRED   STUD   BOOK, 

James  E.  Wheeler,  173  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York. 
AMERICAN  HACKNEY   STUD  BOOK, 

A.  H.  Godfrey,  Astor  Court  Bldg.,  West  34th  St.,  New  York 
DOMINION  OF   CANADA   HACKNEY  STUD   BOOK, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN   MORGAN   EEGISTRY, 

Jos.  Battell,  Middlebury,  Vt. 
AMERICAN   CLYDESDALE   STUD   BOOK, 

Alex.  Galbraith,  Janesville,  Wis. 
DOMINION   OF   CANADA   CLYDESDALE   STUD  BOOK, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 

AMERICAN   SHIRE   HORSE   ASSOCIATION, 
Charles  Burgess,  Wenona,  111. 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA  SHIRE  HORSE  STUD  BOOK, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN   CLEVELAND   BAY  STUD   BOOK, 

E.  P.  Stericker,  Janesville,  Wis. 
AMERICAN   SUFFOLK   PUNCH  ASSOCIATION, 

Alex.  Galbraith,  Janesville,  Wis. 
PERCHERON  STUD   BOOK  OF  AMERICA, 

S.  D.  Thompson,  Wayne,  111. 
AMERICAN  FRENCH   COACH  HORSE  SOCIETY, 

S.  D.  Thompson,  Wayne,  111. 

(383) 


384  THE  HORSE 

NATIONAL  REGISTER  OF  FRENCH   DRAFT  HORSES, 

C.  E.  Stubbs,  Fair-field,  Iowa. 
NATIONAL   REGISTER  OF   NORMAN   HORSES, 

Theo.  Butterworth,  Quincy,  111. 
AMERICAN   BELGIAN   DRAFT   HORSE  ASSOCIATION, 

J.  D.  Conner,  Jr.,   Wabash,  Ind. 
GERMAN   COACH   HORSE  ASSOCIATION, 

J.  Crouch,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
OLDEMBURG   COACH   HORSE   ASSOCIATION, 

C.  E.  Stubbs,  Fairfield,  Iowa 
AMERICAN  TROTTING   REGISTER  ASSOCIATION, 

J.  H.  Steiner,  355  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago,  111. 
AMERICAN   SADDLE  HORSE   BREEDERS'    ASSOCIATION, 

I.  B.  Nail,  Louisville,  Ky. 
AMERICAN  JACK   STOCK  STUD   BOOK, 

J.  H.  Fullton,  Grassland,  Tenn. 
AMERICAN'  SHETLAND   CLUB   STUD   BOOK, 

Mortimer  Levering,  Lafayette,  Ind. 


CATTLE 

AMERICAN   SHORT -HORN   BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

John  W.  Groves,  Springfield,  111. 
DOMINION   OF  CANADA   SHORT- HORN   HERD  BOOK, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN  POLLED   DURHAM  HERD   BOOK, 

J.  H.  Miller,  Mexico,  Ind. 
AMERICAN   HEREFORD  CATTLE  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 

C.  R.  Thomas,  Independence,  Mo. 
DOMINION  OF   CANADA   HEREFORD   HERD   BOOK, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN  ABERDEEN-ANGUS  HERD   BOOK, 

Thomas  McFarlane,  Harvey,  111. 


APPENDIX  III  385 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA   POLLED   ANGUS  HERD   BOOK, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN  GALLOWAY  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 

Frank  B.  Hearne,  Independence,  Mo. 
AMERICAN   JERSEY  CATTLE   CLUB  HERD  REGISTER, 

J.  J.  Hemingway,  8  West  17th  St.,  New  York, 
AMERICAN  JERSEY   HERD   BOOK, 

O.  B.  Had  wen,  Worcester,  Mass. 
MAINE  STATE  JERSEY  CATTLE  ASSOCIATION  HERD  BOOK, 

N.  R.  Pike,  Winthrop,  Me. 
AMERICAN  GUERNSEY  CATTLE   CLUB  HERD   REGISTER, 

Wm.  H.  Caldwell,  Peterboro,  N.  H. 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN   HERD    BOOK, 

Frederick  L.  Houghton,  Brattleboro,  Vt. 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN   HERD   BOOK   OF   CANADA, 

J.  W.  demons,  St.  George,  Ont. 
DUTCH  BELTED    HERD  BOOK, 

H.  B.  Richards,  Easton,  Pa. 
AMERICAN  BRANCH  ASSOCIATION  NORTH  HOLLAND  HERD  BOOK, 

Fred.  H.  Beach,  Dover,  N.  J. 
AYRSHIRE  RECORD, 

C.  M.  Winslow,  Brandon,  Vt. 
CANADIAN  AYRSHIRE  HERD  BOOK, 

Henry  Wadi,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN  DEVON  RECORD, 

L.  P.  Sisson,  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
CANADA  DEVON  RECORD, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
Swiss  RECORD, 

N.  S.  Fish,  Groton,  Conn. 
RED  POLLED  HERD  BOOK, 

J.  McLain  Smith,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
AMERICAN  SUSSEX  ASSOCIATION, 

Overton  Lea,  Nashville,    Tenn. 


386 


THE    HORSE 


AMERICAN  HOLDERNESS  HERD  BOOK, 

T.  A.  COLE,  SOLSVILLE,  N.  Y. 
KERRY  CATTLE, 

Henry  S.  Ambler,  Chatham,  N.  Y. 

SHEEP,     GOATS    AND    RABBITS 

AMERICAN  SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP  RECORD, 

Mortimer  Levering,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
FLOCK  RECORD  OF  HAMPSHIRE -DOWN  SHEEP, 

C.  A.  Tyler,  Nottawa,  Mich. 
AMERICAN  LEICESTER  RECORD, 

A.  J.  Temple,  Cameron,  111. 
DORSET-HORN  SHEEP  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION  OF  AMERICA, 

M.  A.  Cooper,  Washington,  Pa. 
DORSET-HORN  CONTINENTAL  CLUB, 

J.  E.  Wing,  Meehanicsburg,  Ohio. 
AMERICAN  CHEVIOT  SHEEP  SOCIETY, 

F.  E.  Dawley,  Fayetteville,  N.  Y. 
AMERICAN  COTSWOLD  RECORD, 

Geo.  Harding  &  Son,  Waukesha,  Wis. 
AMERICAN  SOUTHDOWN  ASSOCIATION, 

Frank  S.  Springer,  Springfield,  111. 
AMERICAN  OXFORD -DOWN  RECORD, 

W.  A.  Shafor,  Middletown,  Ohio. 
STANDARD  AMERICAN  MERINO  SHEEP  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

John  P.  Ray,  Hemlock  Lake,  N.  Y. 
STANDARD  DELAINE  SPANISH  MERINO  SHJSEP  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIA 

TION, 

S.  M.  Cleaves,  East  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
NATIONAL  MERINO  SHEEP  REGISTER  ASSOCIATION, 

C.  C.  Johnson,  Canonsburg,  Pa. 
REGISTER  MICHIGAN  MERINO  SHEEP  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

E.  N.  Ball,  Hamburg,  Mich. 


APPENDIX  III  387 

KEGISTER  N.   Y.   STATE    AMERICAN    MERINO    SHEEP    BREEDERS' 

ASSOCIATION, 
J.  Horatio  Earll,  Skaneateles,  N.  Y. 

REGISTER  VERMONT  MERINO  SHEEP   BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 
Lewis  A.  Skiff,  Middlebury,  Vt. 

U.   S.   MERINO  SHEEP  BREEDERS'   REGISTRY  ASSOCIATION, 
J.  A.  B.  Walker,  Enon  Valley,  Pa. 

BLACK  TOP  SPANISH  MERINO  SHEEP  REGISTER, 
W.  G.  Berry,  Houstonville,  Pa. 

IMPROVED   BLACK  TOP  MERINO  ASSOCIATION, 
L.  M.  Harsh,  Union  City,  Mich. 

STANDARD  DELAINE  MERINO  SHEEP  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 
Alexander  Turn  bull,  Cedarville,  Ohio. 

NATIONAL  DELAINE  MERINO  SHEEP  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 
John  C.  McNary,  Canonsburg,  Pa. 

NATIONAL  DICKINSON  RECORD  Co., 

H.  G.  McDowell,  Canton,  Ohio. 

AMERICAN  RAMAOUILLET  SHEEP  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 

E.  V.  Burnham,  Woodstock,  Ohio. 

OHIO  MERINO  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 
Wesley  Bishop,  Troyton,  Ohio. 

VERMONT  ATWOOD  CLUB  REGISTER, 

Geo.  Hammond,  Middlebury,  Vt. 

NATIONAL  IMPROVED  SAXONY  SHEEP  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

John  G.  Clark,  R.  D.  No.  9,   Washington,  Pa. 
AMERICAN  LINCOLN  SHEEP  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 

L.  C.  Graham,  Cameron,  111. 
NATIONAL  LINCOLN  SHEEP  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 

Bert  Smith,  Charlotte,  Mich. 
INTERNATIONAL  LINCOLN   SOCIETY, 

H.  A.  Daniels,  Millington,  Mich. 
AMERICAN  SUFFOLK  FLOCK  REGISTRY  ASSOCIATION, 

F.  A.  Franklin,  Atlantic,   Iowa. 


388  THE  HORSE 

DOMINION  SHEEP  BREEDERS'  FLOCK  BOOK  OP   ALL  BREEDS, 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 
AMERICAN  ANGORA  GOAT  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

C.  P.  Bailey,  San  Jose,  Cal. 
AMERICAN   BELGIAN  HARE   REGISTRY  ASSOCIATION, 

Dr.  E.  R.  Allen,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

SWINE 

AMERICAN  BERKSHIRE  ASSOCIATION, 

Chas.  F.  Mills,  Springfield,  111. 
CENTRAL  POLAND-CHINA  RECORD, 

W.  H.  Morris,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
STANDARD  POLAND -CHINA  RECORD, 

Geo.  F.  Woodworth,  Marysville,  Mo. 
OHIO  POLAND-CHINA  RECORD, 

Carl  Freigau,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

AMERICAN  POLAND-CHINA  RECORD  Co., 

William  M.  McFadden,  West  Liberty,  Iowa. 

NATIONAL  CHESTER- WHITE   RECORD, 

Thos.  Sharpless,  Westchester,  Pa. 

STANDARD  CHESTER- WHITE  RECORD  ASSOCIATION, 
W.  H.  Morris,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

AMERICAN  CHESTER- WHITE  RECORD, 
Carl  Freigau,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

AMERICAN  DUROC-JERSEY  RECORD, 

A.  V.  Braderick,  Connersville,  Ind. 
NATIONAL  DUROC-JERSEY  RECORD, 

Robt.  J.  Evans,  El  Paso,  111. 
CHESHIRE  HERD  BOOK, 

B.  B.  Badger,  Ouaquaga,  N.  Y. 
VICTORIA  SWINE  RECORD, 

H.  Davis,  Dyer,  Ind. 


APPENDIX  III  389 

RECORD  IMPROVED  ESSEX   SWINE, 

F.  M.  Srout,  McLean,  111. 
SMALL- YORKSHIRE  SWINE  REGISTER, 

Geo.  W.  Harris,  Box  3432,  New  York. 
NATIONAL  BERKSHIRE  RECORD  ASSOCIATION, 

E.  K.  Morris,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
AMERICAN  YORKSHIRE  CLUB, 

W.  F.  Wilcox,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
AMERICAN  SUFFOLK  ASSOCIATION, 

W.  F.  Watson,  Winchester,  Ind. 
TAMWORTH  SWINE  ASSOCIATION, 

E.  N.  Ball,  Hamburg,  Mich. 
GOTHLAND   SWINE  BREEDERS'   ASSOCIATION, 

Grant  W.  Spear,  Aurora,  111. 
DOMINION  SWINE   BREEDERS'    RECORD  OF  ALL  BREEDS 

Henry  Wade,  Toronto,  Ont. 


APPENDIX  IV 


NUMBER  AND    VALUE   OF  HORSES 
From  Report  of  the  Twelfth  United  States  Census 

HORSES  were  reported  on  4,532,018  farms  and  ranges,  June  1, 
1900,  and  in  1,373,661  barns  and  other  inclosures  not  on  farms  or 
ranges.  The  number  on  farms  and  ranges  comprised  1,315,208 
colts  under  1  year  old,  1,447,747  horses  1  and  under  2  years,  and 
15,517,052  horses  2  years  and  over.  The  numbers  not  on  farms 
and  ranges  were,  for  the  three  classes  named,  33,090;  30,402,  and 
2,873,389,  respectively.  There  was,  therefore,  a  total  for  the 
United  States  of  18,390,441  work-horses  and  2,826,447  too  young 
for  work,  making  a  grand  total  of  21,216,888  horses,  of  which  86.8 
per  cent  were  on  farms  and  ranges  and  13.2  per  cent  in  barns  and 
inclosures  elsewhere. 

NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OP  HORSES  AND   COLTS   IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES   IN   1900 


States  and 
Territories 

HORSES 

Colts,  under  1  year 

Colts,  1  and  under 
2  years 

2  years  and  over 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Value 

The  United  States* 

North     Atlantic 
Division   

1,315,208 

$25,900,109 

1,447,747 

$48,335,128 

15,517,052 

$822,720,106 

57,744 
56,527 
723,896 

248,894 
227,768 

$1,848,932 
1,324,033 
15,993,815 

4,487,897 
2,242,194 

82,978 
60,944 
802,439 

241,086 
258,778 

$4,669.925 
2,482,859 
30,298,014 

6,476,530 
4,371,311 

1,558,417 
953,599 
8.267,927 

2,934,783 
1,791,240 

$116,830,468 
56,098,624 
469,738,862 

120,179,811 
59,469,942 

South     Atlantic 
Division  
North    Central 
Division  .     .   . 

South    Central 
Division  
Western  Division 

*Data  for  Alaska  and  Hawaii  included  in  totals  for  United  States,  but  not 
in  those  for  the  five  geographical  divisions. 

(390) 


APPENDIX  IV 


391 


NUMBER  AND   VALUE   OF   HORSES   AND   COLTS   IN   THE 
UNITED    STATES   IN   1900  —  Continued 


States  and 
Territories 

HORSES 

Colts,  under  1  year 

Colts,  1  and  under 
2  years 

2  years  and  over 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Value 

Alabama  

8,724 

$203,492 

7,846 

$299,118 

136,073 
5 
83,804 
222,596 
373,605 
185,541 
50,667 
26,229 
814 
38,387 
118,854 
11,081 
131,076 
1,126,875 
644,469 
178,392 
1,134,457 
828,709 
400,283 
168,786 
99,510 
130,114 
71,937 
517,135 
599,566 
197,733 
845,646 
245,284 
655,460 
58,516 
52,621 
89,144 
97,937 
578,378 
147,419 
299,192 
755,549 
248,316 
234,112 
525,850 
11,120 
72,530 

$7,403,511 
465 
3,466,417 
9,493,685 
16,657,953 
6,487,282 
3,701,650 
1,641,088 
55,297 
2,172,751 
6,802,754 
401,934 
3,708,771 
62,604,632 
36,968,203 
5,686,628 
69,370,107 
39,830,326 
22,057,785 
6,184.115 
6,778,904 
8,666,416 
5,619,159 
33,450,482 
39,252,715 
10,020,068 
38,747,179 
6,584,595 
33,061,792 
1,113,852 
3,726,007 
7,188,643 
1,943,884 
45,556,014 
8,430,054 
21,054,668 
45,725,947 
9,535,824 
7,903,406 
38,225,630 
962,429 
4,615,538 

Alaska         

Arizona.        .  .   . 

18,976 
16,815 
23,049 
23,645 
429 
1,590 
16 
2,239 
4,028 
379 
18,212 
107,967 
52,426 
20,054 
124,527 
72,539 
26,487 
13,510 
2,834 
8,942 
799 
31,018 
45,504 
17,089 
58,177 
39,838 
66,776 
10,778 
702 
1,826 
16,666 
20,027 
5,807 
28,625 
55,324 
26,933 
26,138 
28,547 
91 
2,701 

82,610 
289,075 
423,427 
291,280 
17,952 
42,110 
590 
42,156 
99,935 
3,238 
136,246 
2,518,050 
1,308.117 
213,041 
2,991,078 
1,465,610 
1,062,057 
166,312 
78,537 
231,074 
47,177 
746,534 
970,772 
367,069 
1,277,129 
364,743 
1,284,984 
56,296 
23,847 
153,251 
99,127 
650,894 
131,675 
546,743 
1,395,896 
423,331 
267,521 
806,696 
4,740 
69,778 

22,283 
14,179 
24,639 
27,360 
1,480 
1,903 
24 
2,185 
4,525 
1,522 
20,832 
115,377 
54,820 
19,253 
133,589 
78,447 
24,927 
12,076 
3,955 
9,938 
2,298 
38,406 
51,399 
14,489 
63,214 
44,850 
73,082 
11,001 
1,543 
3,054 
16,550 
30,033 
5,927 
32,131 
67,332 
28,382 
27,682 
36,584 
179 
3,188 

152,878 
381,735 
763,613 
530,164 
94,030 
84,427 
1,475 
75,232 
189,539 
36,489 
278,326 
4,575,418 
2,365,668 
324,049 
5,359,392 
2,462,398 
1,428,700 
274,190 
201,548 
455,204 
160,121 
1,711,541 
2,031,557 
495,714 
2,070,506 
839,334 
2,316,583 
102,188 
90,816 
240,380 
177,458 
1,771,023 
233,882 
1,127,100 
3,037,402 
656,139 
480,133 
1,916,501 
13,779 
161,587 

Arkansas 

Colorado  

Connecticut  
Delaware 

Dist.  of  Col'm'a 
Florida  

Georgia  

Hawaii        .    .   . 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana  

Indian  Terri'y  . 
Iowa  
Kansas            .   . 

Kentucky 

Louisiana  

Maine  

Maryland    

Massachusetts  . 
Michigan 

Minnesota  

Mississippi  
Missouri  
Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey  

New  Mexico  .  .  . 
New  York  
North  Carolina. 
North  Dakota.. 
Ohio 

Oklahoma  
Oregon  

Pennsylvania  .  . 
Rhode  Island  .  . 
South  Carolina. 

392 


THE  HORSE 


NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  HORSES  AND   COLTS  IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES   IN   1900  —  Continued 


States  and 
Territories 

HORSES 

Colts,  under  1  year 

Colts,  1  and  under 
2  years 

2  years  and  over 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Value 

South  Dakota.. 
Tennessee  

47,124 
23,853 
95,429 
11,395 
2,489 
19,257 
22,359 
11,947 
33,889 
16,712 

$700,748 
663,620 
1,099,900 
122,843 
65,838 
441,858 
253,658 
264,857 
788,154 
144,443 

52,659 
23,109 
96,825 
13,515 
3,852 
20,291 
30,312 
12,963 
41,983 
19,754 

$1,369,292 
993,396 
1,623,489 
247,348 
181,727 
780,009 
502,760 
501,504 
1,871,157 
297,109 

380,985 
305,426 
1,077,178 
90,974 
79,190 
258,974 
191,314 
160,278 
479,884 
99,077 

$18,015,647 
18,024,501 
31,773,694 
3,026,122 
5,072,032 
14,104,537 
7,794,016 
9,610,189 
31,657,164 
2,783,644 

Utah  

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.  .  .  . 
West  Virginia.. 
Wisconsin  
Wyoming  

NUMBER  AND   VALUE  OF  HORSES  AND  COLTS  ON  FARMS  AND  RANGES 
IN   THE  UNITED   STATES,  JUNE  1,  1900,  WITH   AVERAGE   VALUES 


CLASSES 

Number 

Value 

Average 
value 

All  horses 

18  980  007 

$896  955  343 

$49  07 

Colts,  under  1  year  

1,315,208 

$25,900,109 

$19  69 

Colts,  1  and  under  2  years  

1,447,747 

48,335,128 

33  39 

Horses,  2  years  and  over  

15,517,052 

822,720,106 

53  0!i 

NUMBER  OF  HORSES,  JUNE  1,  1900,  IN  CITIES  OF  SPECIFIED  NUMBERS 
AND   INHABITANTS 


CLASSIFIED  BY  POPULATION 


Number  to  100,000 
inhabitants 


All  cities  of  over  25,000  inhabitants  .. 
Cities  of  25,000  to  50,000  inhabitants  . 
Cities  of  50,000  to  100,000  inhabitants 
Cities  of  over  100,000  inhabitants 


4,396 
5,321 
4,443 
4,204 


APPENDIX    IV 


393 


NUMBER  AND  ESTIMATED  VALUE  OF  HORSES  AND  COLTS  NOT  ON  FARMS 

OR  RANGES,  AND   ESTIMATED   VALUE  OF  ALL  HORSES  IN  THE 

UNITED   STATES,  JUNE  1,  1900 


CLASSES 

Not  on  farms  or  ranges 

Estimated 
value  of  all 
horses 

Number 

Estimated 
value 

All  horses 

2,936,881 

$154,013,750 

$1,050,969,093 

Colts   under  1  year        ...       ... 

33,090 
30,402 
2,873,389 

$651,542 
1,015,123 
152,347,085 

$26,551,651 
49,350,251 
975,067,191 

Colts    1  and  under  2  years 

Horses,  2  years  and  over  

NUMBER  OF  HORSES  ON  FARMS  AND  RANGES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

BY   GEOGRAPHICAL   DIVISIONS;    SUMMARY   1850  TO   1900 

(Expressed  in  thousands) 


GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISION 

*1900 

11890 

11880 

tl870 

tl860 

tl850 

The  United  States  .... 

16,965 

115,266 

10,357 

7,145 

6,249 

4,337 

North  Atlantic  

1,641 

1  739 

1,555 

1,336 

1,280 

1,074 

South  Atlantic  

1,015 

880 

801 

591 

774 

771 

North  Central 

9  070 

+8  574 

5  467 

3  613 

2  542 

1  399 

South  Central 

3  176 

+9  462 

1  921 

1  311 

1  436 

1  056 

Western  

2,050 

11,611 

613 

294 

217 

37 

Alaska  and  Hawaii  .. 

13 

*  Exclusive  of  spring  colts. 

tNo  separate  report  or  estimate  of  range  animals  made. 

I  Including  estimated  number  of  range  animals  separately  reported, 

NUMBER  OF  HORSES  EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1891  TO  1901 


YEAR 

NUMBER 

YEAR 

NUMBER 

1891 

3  110 

1897 

39  532 

1892 

3  226 

1898 

51  150 

1893  

2,967 

1899 

45  778 

1894  

5  246 

1900 

64  722 

1895  

13  984 

1901 

82  950 

1896  

25  126 

394 


THE  HORSE 


ESTIMATED  AVERAGE  VALUE  OP  HORSES   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES; 
SUMMARY,  1880   TO   1900 


YEAR 

VALUE 

YEAR 

VALUE 

1880  

$54  75 

1891  

$67  00 

1881 

58  44 

1892 

65  01 

1882 

58  53 

1893 

61  2? 

1883  

70  59 

1894  

47  83 

1884  

74  64 

1895  

36  29 

1885   .   . 

73  70 

1896 

33  07 

1886 

71  27 

1897 

31  51 

1887  

72  15 

1898  

34  26 

1888  

71  82 

1899  

37  40 

1889  

71  89 

1900 

44  61 

1890 

68  84 

Census  1900 

49  07 

INDEX 


Abderame,  Saracen  chief,  156. 

Accidents  in  pacing,  85. 

Air,  warm  and  cool,  340. 

Alexander  I.,  63. 

American  boy  and  the  horse,  3,  4,  15. 

breeds,  dearth  of,  42. 

thoroughbred,  61. 

trotters  discussed,  43. 
Americans  poor  drivers,  297. 
Animals  for  illustration,  149. 
Appendix  I.,  354-  59. 

II.  360. 

III.  Live-stock  registry,  381-387. 

IV.  Number    and    value  of   horses, 
388-392. 

Arabian  horse  in  France,  32. 

in  Great  Britain,  29. 
Army-horses,  breeding  of,  354. 
Artillery-horses,  355. 
Ashes  for  horses,  311. 
Association,  National  Trotting  Horse 

Breeders',  74. 
Atavism  explained,  201. 
Attachment,  high  and  low,  351. 

Backing  horses,  315. 
the  horse,  290. 

Bakewell,  Robert,  141. 

Beauty  valuable,  234. 

Beginner,  suggestions  for,  222. 

Belgium  draft,  characteristics,  169;  de- 
scription, 171;  draft,  168;  origin, 
168;  size  of,  169;  stallion,  Fig.  of, 
169,  170. 

Bits,  kinds  of,  285. 

Black  horse  of  Europe,  139. 

Blankets  for  draft-horses,  312. 
how  to  use  them,  293. 


Boulonnais,  description  of.  168;   draft, 

168;  origin,  168. 
Breeders'  Gazette,  151. 
Breeding  for  the  army,  354. 

generations  discussed,  183. 

horses,  267. 

laws  of,  178. 

laws  of,  discussed,  176. 

mares,  how  secured,  204. 

mistakes  of,  175. 

modified  by  inheritance,  181. 

nondescripts,  33. 

plan  of,  202. 

principles  of,  174. 

remarks  on,  76,  77,  78. 

scientific,  76,  77,  78. 

stockholders  interested,  202. 

studied  under  eight  heads,  180. 

theory  not  correct,  184. 

variations,  177. 
Breeds,  explanation  of,  49. 

formation  of,  discussed,  44. 

how  originated,  145. 

suitably  placed,  223. 
Bressay  of  Pittsford,  Shetland.  127. 
British  horse,  61. 
Broadhead,  Colonel,  69. 
Broken-gaited  horses,  85 
Brood-mare,  characteristics,  208;   de- 
scription of,  206;  Fig.  of,  205;  filley, 
Fig.  of,  207;  first  lesson,  207;  how 
worked,  217  ;    kept  on  farms,  225; 
paddo2ks  for,  217. 
Bronco-gaited,  134. 

Canadian  horses  to  United  States,  87. 
Cattle,  wild,  179. 
Cavalry-horses,  69,  356. 


(395) 


396 


INDEX 


Champion  Welsh  pony  mare,  129. 

Charles  II.,  39. 

Chase,  A.  C.,  336. 

Chaucer,  70. 

Chillingham  Park,  179. 

Cities'  demand  for  heavy  horses,  229. 

Cleveland  Bay,  discussed,  102. 

Climate,  effect  of,  on  conformation,  190, 
the  part  it  plays,  189. 
severe  effects  of,  on  conformation, 
191. 

Clyde  Dunsmore,  combination,  148. 

Clydesdale,  17,  31,  39;  description  of, 
141;  diminution  of  feather,  144  ; 
Figs,  of,  140,  142,  144,  146;  Borth- 
wick,  Imported,  144;  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, 144;  in  the  U.  S..  144;  Lord 
Stewart,  Fig.  of,  140;  mare,  146; 
origin,  141 ;  wasp  -  waisted,  143  ; 
weight  of,  143. 

Coacher,  trotters  as  sires  of,  103. 

Coach-horses,  95;  a  good  one,  101;  carri- 
ages for,  99 ;  checked  high,  96;  Cleve- 
land Bay,  100;  description  of,  95,  97; 
desirable  characteristics,  98;  dis- 
cussed, 95;  for  America,  99;  for 
leisure  class,  96;  size  of,  95;  uses 
of,  97. 

Color  of  horses,  235. 

Colts,  and  the  farm  boy,  272;  being 
thrown,  279;  building  for,  335;  cost 
of,  269;  cost  of  raising,  225,  269;  de- 
fined, 218 ;  educate  the  farm  boy,  273 ; 
education,  275;  education  in  detail, 
276;  fall,  versus  spring,  210;  how 
subdued,  280;  in  mixed  husbandry, 
269;  plan  of  breeding,  211;  presented 
by  father,  274;  profits  in  raising, 
271;  ready  for  second  lesson,  278; 
receiving  first  lesson,  277;  sale  of, 
213;  two-toed,  Fig.  of,  239;  versus 
cows,  212,  270;  when  to  breed,  211. 

Commoner's  horse,  47. 

Computing  rations  for  farm  animals, 
360. 

Conditions  to  be  made  superior,  194. 

Constipation,  how  relieved,  310. 


Cool  stables,  338. 
Cow-hocked  legs,  Fig.  of,  238. 
Cresceus,  74;  Fig.  of,  75. 
Crossing,  rules  for,  196. 
Crusades,  63. 
Curtis,  G.  W.,  159. 
Custom  of  the  road,  352. 

Dam  and  sire,  influence  of,  197. 

Damp  stables,  338. 

Dan  Patch,  80;  Fig.  of,  83. 

Demi-Sangs,  104. 

Denmark,  foundation  of  saddlers,  88. 

Description  of  the  horse  wanted,  48. 

Discovering  blemishes,  244. 

Discussion  of  feeding  rations,  360-363. 

Domestication,  21. 

Draft  breeds,  156;  British,  156;  French, 

156. 

Draft-colt,  first  lesson.  Fig.  of,  209. 
Draft -horse,  139;    heavy,  2;  imported, 
64;  medium,  2,  5;  in  Great  Britain, 
30. 
Draft,  line  of,  348,  349;    Fig.  of,  348; 

Fig.  of,  349. 
Driving  badly,  288,  290. 

colts,  302. 

draft-horses,  314. 

farm-horses,  314. 

good  and  bad,  298. 

in  Great  Britain,  293. 

instructions,  287. 

jockey  style,  300. 

plow-horses,  300. 

position  of  hands  in,  299. 

pullers,  300. 

roadsters,  299. 

slack  rein,  301. 

system  of,  301. 

trotters,  299. 
Duchess  of  Geneva,  52. 

pedigree  illustrated,  553. 
Du  Hays,  Charles,  31,  32,  156. 
Dunsmore  Combination  Clyde,  148. 

Eads,  James  B.,  177. 

Economical  application  of  energy,  347. 


INDEX 


397 


Edward  II..  64. 

Effects  of  careless  coupling,  347. 

food,  347. 

native  ability,  347. 

propitious  climate,  228. 
Energy  economically  applied,  350. 

efficiently  applied,  Fig.  92,    347. 
English  Shire,  147;  description  of,  147; 

Fig.  33,   148. 
English  stud-book,  61. 
Evolution,  law  of,  196. 
Exile  of  Pittsford,  Shetland,  126 
Experimental  breeding,  139. 
Exportation  in  Great  Britain,  forbid- 
den, 27, 

Family  horse,  234. 
Farm-horse  in  Great  Britain,  26. 

in  United  States,  2,  4,  8,  12. 
Feeding  balanced  rations,  308. 

brood-mare,  214,  215. 

coarse  material,  304. 

draft-horses,  303. 

experiments,  305. 

foal,  214. 

foal,  milk  temperature  of,  220. 

foal,  succulent  food,  220. 

grass,  307. 

horses,  281. 

quantity,  304. 

rations,  215. 

discussion,  360-363. 

when,  304. 

when  at  light  work,  306. 
Foal,  care  of,  when  young,  221. 
Foals,  number  of,  in  1880,  68. 
Feet,  conformation  of,  245. 
Fields  and  paddocks,  346. 
Fitting  the  harness,  284. 
Flemish    horses,    26;     compared    with 
Belgians,  173;  described,  171;  draft, 
140,  171;  illustration,  Fig.  45,  172. 
Flying  Childers,  147. 
Fly-nets—use  explained,  312. 
Food,  effect  of,  187. 
Foods  for  horses,  282. 

quantity  fed,  283. 
Foreign  horses  in  stud,  65. 


Forester.  Frank,  38. 

describes  English  breeding,  39.- 
Formation  of  breeds  discussed,  44. 
Foundation  stock,  36. 
discussed,  36. 
for  army-horses,  359. 
French  coach-horse,   105;   Fig.  15,  106; 
description,  104,  106,  107;    govern- 
ment control,  105;  origin,  104. 
French  draft-horse,  161-167;  stud-book, 

161-167;    description  of,  167. 
Friction  relieved,  349. 
Fright,  18. 
Full-blood  explained,  146. 

Gaited  bronco,  134. 

Gallipoli,  159. 

Galloways,  125. 

Geddes,  George,  15. 

General-purpose  horse,  2. 

German  coach  at  World's  Fair,   109; 

description    of,   109;    Fig.   16,   108; 

stud-book,  109. 
Gestation,  period  of,  219. 
Godolphin,  159. 
Godolphiii  Arabian,  65. 
Good  driving,  297. 
Gould,  J.  8.,  13. 
Grade  denned,  58. 
Grades,  breeding  of,  226. 
Grooming  the  horse,  292. 

Habit,  a  factor  in  improvement,  192. 

Hackney,  110;  back  ideal,  110;  breed- 
ing of,  114;  Cadet,  Fig.  17,  111; 
Cassatt,  A.  J.,  113,  114;  Coutts, 
Burdett,  112;  description  of,  112;  de- 
mand for,  113,  114;  Fandango,  Fig. 
18,  113-,  how  produced.  Ill;  impor- 
tations from  Europe,  114;  in  Eng- 
land, 111;  Little  Wonder,  112; 
limbs  flexible,  112;  Lawrence,  Pres- 
cott,  113;  pleasing  appearance  sat- 
isfies the  eye,  113;  size  of,  112; 
Stevens,  Frederick  C.,  113;  sold, 
114;  west  of  Ohio  river,  114. 

Hands  in  driving,  297.  See,  also,  Driv- 
ing. 


398 


INDEX 


Hansom-cab,  352;  Fig.  95,  353. 

Harness,  fitting  of,  284. 

Hay,  provision  for,  345. 

Henry  III.,  64. 

Herbert,  on  the  horse,  62. 

Hoppling  racers,  85. 

Horses,  abandoned  by  DeSoto,  34; 
action  of,  73;  beauty  of,  78;  bred  by 
the  commoner,  268;  breeding,  267; 
bones  of,  in  Kirkdale  cave,  35; 
Conestoga,  35;  care  of  legs,  294; 
color  of,  78;  character  wanted  and 
how  procured,  46-47;  days'  work, 
291;  divided  into  groups,  237;  Eng- 
lish books  on,  71;  fat  and  lean, 
281;  feeding  of,  281;  for  war  pur- 
poses, 104;  fossil  remains  of,  34; 
in  France,  31;  in  Great  Britain,  26; 
grooming  of,  292;  guaranteed,  232; 
imported,  64;  imported  by  Colum- 
bus, 35;  in  hansoms,  353;  landed 
by  Cortez,  35;  love  for,  1,  3;  modi- 
fied by  climate,  189;  modified  by 
Puritans,  40;  nondescript,  value 
of,  46;  number  and  value,  Appen- 
dix IV.,  388-392,  saddlers,  71;  siege 
of  Azof,  34;  to  Canada,  35;  to  New 
York,  35;  to  Pennsylvania,  35;  two 
varieties,  122;  use  of,  41;  watering 
of,  290;  when  blanketed,  293;  when 
ridden,  72;  when  to  clean,  295; 
wild,  34;  wild,  of  South  America, 
34;  winter  work  for,  224;  see,  also, 
Farm  -  horse,  Draft  -  horse,  Pony. 
Roadster. 

Horse-power,  9,  10. 

Hunter,  30,  115;  Canadian  breeders  of, 
121;  description  of,  119;  heavy 
weight,  Fig.  of,  117;  how  trained, 
118;  investment  required,  115; 
number  raised,  121;  Ontario,  Fig. 
of,  120;  Peer,  F.  S.,  115;  sires,  116; 
thoroughbred,  foundation  of,  118; 
Virginia,  breeders  of,  121. 

Illustration,  value  of,  151. 
Imported  horses,  list  of,  66. 


Importation,  before  1776,  1;  into  Great 
Britain,  26;  United  States,  5;  laws, 
64;  of  racing  blood,  39. 
Improvement,  due  largely  to  food  and 

environment,  231. 
infusion  of  better  blood,  231 . 
use,  231. 

of  herd,  how  accomplished,  195. 
discussed,  227. 
Infantry-horses,  357. 
Influence,  relative,  of  sire  and  dam,  200. 
Inheritance  discussed,  185. 
Inspecting  the  horse,  239. 

Job,  tribute  of,  69. 

Jockeying,  63. 

Joe  Patchen,  80. 

Judging  horses,  233. 

Julius  Caesar,  Welsh  Pony.  132 

King  James,  65. 

Large  horses  difficult  to  produce,  236. 
Light  vehicles,  352. 
Lighting  stables,  334. 
Line  of  draft,  348;  Fig.  of.  348. 
Live-stock  registry.  381-387. 
Load,  how  attached,  351. 
Lord  Stewart,  Clydesdale,  140. 
Lou  Dillon,  74;  Fig.  of,  72. 

Major  Delmar,  74. 

Mangers,  construction  of,  345. 

Manures,  care  of,  340. 

waste  of,  341. 
Martel,  Charles,  156. 
Maud  S.,  74. 

Mental  and  muscular  efficiency,  188. 
Morgan  horse  modified,  48. 
Moses,  genealogy  of,  56;  illustrated,  57. 
Movement,  Welsh  pony,  131. 
Mules,  in  United  States,  12. 

Nature's  modes  of  action,  178. 
Neck,  an  all-embracing,  Fig.  of,  243. 

an  undesirable,  Fig.  of,  242. 

of  Goldsmith  Maid,  Fig.  of,  241. 


INDEX 


399 


North  America,  horses  indigenous  to, 

33. 
Number  and  value  of  horses,  Appendix 

IV..  388-392. 

Oriental  blood  introduced,  158. 

breeds,  61.    See,  also,  Arabian  horse. 
Over-draw  checks,  285. 

Pacers,    72;     Narragansett,    37;     as   a 

driver,  84;  breeding  discussed,  82. 
compared  with  trotters,  84. 
discussed,  78. 
pure-gaited,  80. 
time  of,  80. 
Pacing  horses,  78. 
Paddocks  and  fields,  346. 
Palo  Alto,  74. 

Parturition,  approach  and  signs  of,  219. 
Patterson,  John,  141. 
Pedigrees,  Alphea  Czar,  55. 
Angus  Ladd,  54. 
begun  1829,  67. 
how  based,  50. 

knowledge  of,  stimulates,  59. 
reliance  on,  60. 
short  and  long,  52,  54. 
Percheron  horse,  31;  mare,  Fig.  of,  163; 
Normans,  161;  Stallion,  Fig.  of,  160; 
stallion,  Fig.  of,  164;  stallion,  Fig. 
of,   166;   studbook,   161;  weight  of, 
166. 

Percherons  changed,  old  to  new,  158; 
color  of,  165;  conformation,  165; 
description  of,  162;  early  impor- 
tations, 159. 

Photographing  animals,  148. 
Plow,  invention  of,  13. 
Plymouth  Rocks,  how  bred,  59. 
Pointer,  Fig.  of,  238. 
Ponies,  122;  child's  horse,  127;  African, 
122;  breeding,  136;  Bressay,  Fig.  of, 
127;    color    of,    133;    Corsica,   122; 
Creole,  135;  Dartmoor  family,  130; 
demand  for,  125;  Exmoors  family, 
130;   Exile,  Fig.  of,  126;  foundation 
stock,  138;   gaited  broncho.  Fig.  of, 
134;  Fig.  of,  123;  Fig.  of  two,  124; 


Indian,  135;  Julius  Caesar,  Fig.  of, 
132;  Mexican,  123;  mustangs,  133; 
new  forest  family,  130;  polo-pony 
breeding,  137;  Shetlands,  125;  size 
of,  124,  128;  subject  to  asthma,  128; 
Titor- Welch,  Fig  of,  129;  useful, 
128  ;  Welsh  pony,  Fig.  of,  131; 
Welsh  breeding,  130. 

Pony,  3;  from  Europe,  37;  Indian 
mustang,  37. 

Potency  and  prepotency,  186. 

Prince  Alert,  80;  Fig.  of,  81. 

Progress  by  selection,  194. 

Pullers,  how  cured,  285. 

Punishing  the  horse,  289. 

Quartette  of  Clydesdales,  Fig.  of,  142. 
Quilters,  Sir  W.  Cuthbert,  154. 

Race-course,  1 ;  established,  62. 

established,  United  States,  66. 
Race-horses  kep4  by  statesmen,  66. 
Races,  number  of,  68. 
Racing,  72. 

forbidden  by  Cromwell,  27. 
Records  of  trotters,  73. 
Registration,  how  governed,  51. 
Registry  of  live-stock,  381-387. 
Rein,  cruel  use  of,  286. 
Rei  singer,  Roe,  61. 
Richard  II.,  64. 
Roadster,  3. 
Roman  conquest,  61. 

horse,  62. 
Rules  for  shoeing,  332. 

Saddler,  American,  86,  87,  94;  associa- 
tion, 89;  at  rest,  Fig.  4,  45;  at  rest, 
Fig.  of,  332;  at  World's  Fair,  90; 
breeding,  88;  color  of,  90;  cut  of, 
Fig.  13,  92;  description  of,  90;  for 
park  riding,  91;  foundation  of,  87; 
gaits  of,  89;  Kentucky,  87;  move- 
ment of  feet,  93;  Northern,  91; 
noted,  88;  not  popular  in  New 
York,  94;  Roman,  86;  running  walk, 
83;  size  of,  90;  Southern,  91;  South 
United  States,  86. 


400 


INDEX 


Salting  horses,  311. 
amount  of,  311. 

Star  Pointer,  80. 

Saunders,  J.  H.,  160. 

Selection,  the  part  it  plays,  193. 

Selling  horses,  232. 

Sex,  government  of,  198. 
facts,  cited,  199. 

Shetland,  Exile  of  Pitsford,  126. 

Shire  filley,  Fig.  of,  151. 

Short-horn,  Herd-book,  51. 

Sire  and  dam,  influence  of,  197. 

Size  and  weight  of  horses,  313. 

Soiling  colts,  218. 

Spanish  horse,  27. 
horses,  62. 

Stables,  arrangement,  Pig.  88,  336; 
cool,  338;  damp,  338;  faulty  con- 
struction, 338;  lighting  of,  334; 
plan  of,  Fig.  89,  337;  too  warm.  336, 
338;  ventilation  of,  333,  337;  floors, 
how  made,  342;  walls,  how  made, 
339;  walls,  how  repaired,  344. 

Stallion,  selection  of,  230. 

Stalls  for  brood-mares,  217. 

Stanford,  Governor,  69. 

Statistics:— France,  7;  Germany,  7; 
Great  Britain,  6;  Netherlands,  8: 
United  States,  5,  6,  8. 

Stone,  Prof.  John  L.,  360. 

Straw,  provision  for,  Fig.  89,  345. 

Stud-book,  how  formed,  50. 

Sub-breeds  denned,  58. 

Success,  Fig.  of,  157. 

Suggestions  for  the  beginner,  222. 

Suffolk  Punch,  color,  152;  description 
of,  153;  Fig.  of,  152;  foundation 
stock,  152;  improved,  153;  mare, 
Fig.  of,  154. 

Sunol,  74. 

Tables    of   standard    feeding    rations, 


Teeth  at  advanced  age,  Fig.  of,  263; 
cross-sections  of,  Fig.  of,  260;  dis- 
cussed,246;  horses'  ages  told  by, 262; 
ten  months  old,  Fig.  of,  249;  side 


view,  very  old  horse,  Fig.  of,  264; 
temporary,  Fig.   of,  249;    wear  of, 
six  cuts,  Fig.  of,  265;  six  weeks  old, 
Fig.  of,  248;  two  weeks  old.  Fig.  of, 
247;    eight  years  old,  Fig.  of,   259; 
eight  years  old,  side  view  of.  Fig. 
of,  261;  four  years  old,  Fig.  of,  252; 
four  years  old,  side  view  of,  Fig.  of, 
253;  five  years  old,  Fig.  of,  254;  five 
years  old,  side  view  of,  Fig.  of,  255; 
seven  years  old,  Fig.  of,  257;  seven 
years  old,  side  view  of,  Fig.  of,  258; 
six  years  old,  Fig.  of,  256;  six  years 
old,  side  view  of,  Fig.  of,  256;  three 
years  old,  Fig.  of,  251;  two  years 
old,  Fig.  of,  250. 
Thirty  war-horses,  64. 
Thoroughbred,    Tennessee    and     Ken- 
tucky, 69. 
as  drivers,  69. 
crossed  with,  68. 
horse,  28,  30. 

importations  into  United    States,  66. 
training,  16,  17. 
Tribe  explained,  50. 
Tricks  of  the  trade,  233. 
Traitor  Shire  stallion,  Fig.  of,  150. 
Trotter  in  England,  71. 
in  Austria,  71. 
in  France,  71. 
in  Italy,  71. 
in  Russia,  71. 

Trotters  compared  with  pacers,  84. 
Trotting  gait,  natural,  70. 

horse,  70. 
Trotting  records,  73. 

Unsightly  ears,  Fig.  of,  240. 

head,  Fig.  of,  240. 
Use  a  factor  in  improvement,  192. 

Variations,  cause  of,  193. 
Ventilation,  333. 

Wagon,  draft  of,  350. 
low-wheeled,  350. 
wide-tired,  350. 


INDEX 


401 


Walters,  William  T.,  156. 
War-horse,  22. 
Water,  temperature  of,  309. 
Watering  horses,  290,  308. 

when  hot,  309. 

Welsh  Pony  mare,  Champion,  129. 
White  Turk,  27. 


Wild  horse,  4. 

William  the  Conqueror.  62. 

Work  day,  length  of,  291. 

Xenophon,  22. 
Youatt,  67. 


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